Developmental Trends: Writing at Different Age Levels

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Infancy (Birth–2)

What You Might Observe:

• Development of eye-hand coordination, including the pincer grasp, through which infants use thumb and forefinger to pick up and hold objects
• Appearance of scribbling at 18 to 24 months
• Interest in mimicking “writing”; gradual awareness that some objects are used for writing

Diversity:

• Individual differences appear in the development of fine motor skills.
• Infants can imitate only what they see, so those who never see anyone writing are unlikely to mimic writing or understand that some objects are used for writing.

Implications:

• Allow toddlers to manipulate small objects that do not present choking hazards.
• Have a variety of tools available for scribbling and coloring (e.g., fat crayons or washable, nontoxic markers).
• Tape writing paper to the table or floor to permit easier writing.

Early Childhood (2–6)

What You Might Observe:

• Increasing muscular control in writing and drawing
• Pseudowriting (e.g., wavy lines, connected loops) in preschool play activities
• Ability to write own name (perhaps at age 4)
• Ability to write most letters of the alphabet (at age 4 or later)
• Invented spellings (at ages 5–6)

Diversity:

• Some cultures place greater emphasis on writing than others.
• Some children have little if any exposure to written materials at home and so have less knowledge of letters.
• Children with visual impairments have less awareness of print conventions (left-to-right progression, use of punctuation, etc.).

Implications:

• Make writing implements (pencils, markers, paper) easily accessible.
• Give children opportunities to write their names and a few other meaningful words.
• Have children act out stories they have orally composed.

Middle Childhood (6–10)

What You Might Observe:

• Gradual increase in smoothness of handwriting; gradual decrease in handwriting size
• Increasing use of letter-sound relationships and common letter patterns when spelling words
• Predominance of narratives in writing
• Difficulty identifying problems (especially problems of clarity) in own writing

Diversity:

• Better readers tend to be better writers, presumably because general language ability provides a foundation for both reading and writing.
• Children with deficits in phonological awareness have a more difficult time learning to spell.
• Girls show higher achievement in writing and spelling beginning in the elementary years.
• Children with dyslexia often have poor handwriting skills.

Implications:

• Engage children in authentic writing activities (e.g., writing letters to relatives, creating a newsletter).
• Provide regular practice in spelling, grammar, and punctuation (often within authentic activities).
• Explore various ways in which particular phonemes and phoneme combinations are spelled in the English language.
• Introduce expository forms of writing (e.g., descriptions, lab reports).
• Build opportunities for editing into the schedule; offer suggestions about how children can improve their writing.

Early Adolescence (10–14)

What You Might Observe:

• Automatized spelling of most common words
• Increasing use of expository forms of writing
• Use of longer and more complex syntactic structures
• Reluctance to edit and revise unless strongly encouraged to do so

Diversity:

• Some older children and adolescents (e.g., those with learning disabilities) may have exceptional difficulty with spelling and sentence structure.
• Some adolescents write often in their spare time (e.g., keeping diaries, writing notes to friends), whereas others write only when required to do so at school.

Implications:

• Provide continuing instruction in spelling, punctuation, and grammar. • Introduce persuasive and argumentative forms of writing.
• Suggest a specific audience for whom to write.
• Give feedback on first drafts, including guidance on how to improve clarity and cohesiveness.
• Encourage adolescents to use local dialects in creative writing projects.

Late Adolescence (14–18)

What You Might Observe:

• Ability to write about a particular topic in depth
• More organized and cohesive essays
• Increasing tendency to knowledge-transform rather than knowledge-tell
• More revisions than at younger ages, but with a focus on superficial rather than substantive problems

Diversity:

• Individuals with learning disabilities may focus largely on mechanics (spelling, use of correct grammar, etc.) while writing, perhaps because such skills are not yet automatized.
• Individuals from some cultural backgrounds (e.g., those from some East Asian countries) may be reluctant to put their thoughts on paper unless they are certain that they are correct.

Implications:

• Assign and scaffold lengthy writing projects.
• Teach specific strategies for organizing and synthesizing ideas.
• Show examples of effective writing (e.g., writing that illustrates knowledge transforming).
• For teens who have language-based learning disabilities, downplay the importance of correct spelling and grammar when evaluating written work; teach strategies for overcoming or compensating for weaknesses.