Independent Group-Oriented Contingencies

Lottery Systems

Lottery systems are sometimes referred to as "catch them being good" and are easy to develop and manage. Students are given lottery tickets when they are randomly "caught" exhibiting positive behaviors. They write their name on the ticket, and turn it in to be part of a lottery drawing for various reinforcers at the end of the day or week. Adults and peers can do the "catching," but adults make the final decision on whether the ticket is given.

Lottery systems can also be used for teachers who are "caught" by their peers or administrators using positive behavior supports in their classrooms with teacher reinforcement lotteries including such benefits as longer lunches, special parking spaces for a designated period of time, and gift certificates to local merchants, who are usually enthusiastic about supporting public education in their communities and benefit from the positive publicity.

Token Economies

Token economies are popular independent group-oriented contingencies that mirror our real-life system of money, exchanging tokens that in and of themselves are valueless for individualized reinforcers. Token economies can be set up as a reinforcement system for groups of students or individual students. (We discuss examples of token economies for individual students in the next chapter.)

The most popular form of token economies for groups of students are tickets, or "classroom cash," that students exchange on a regular basis to buy things from a classroom "store" or reinforcement menu, with each menu item being assigned a certain value. There are limitless ways that teachers can set up token economies. Sticking with our philosophy of mirroring real life, we highly recommend creating an economic simulation system because it provides multiple opportunities to embed life lessons in financial management, math, and citizenship.⁸ In an economic simulation, pretend currency and a mini-economy are created in the classroom that can range from simple to complex. Just like adults, students receive a paycheck for exhibiting positive, responsible behavior, which they can use to make purchases from a class "store." There are a variety of creative ways to teach economic lessons in addition to managing behavior through this type of token economy—for example:

• Establishing "savings accounts" and "checking accounts" for students
• Establishing "credit cards" for students that charge interest
• Charging students "rent" for desks and charging for supplies
• Having students "purchase" privileges typically given away for free
• Paying extra for special projects, extra effort, or extra-credit assignments
• Establishing charitable foundations to which students can contribute
• Assigning students classroom jobs for which they are paid

The Importance of Tier 1 Reinforcement

Building positive behavior support from the ground up with all students not only benefits everyone but also provides more powerful upper tiers of intervention. In addition, providing group reinforcement systems decreases the feeling educators often express that "it wouldn't be fair to my other students. Why do only the troublemakers get rewarded?" and the probability of hearing the common, "Why do they get that, and I don't?" from other students when students with challenging behavior are put on individual reinforcement systems. If all students feel that their positive choices are recognized, appreciated, and encouraged, they will not feel cheated when students who truly need extra support get it.

We have found throughout years of experience in both general and special education that providing reinforcement systems as motivation for all students greatly reduces the feeling that some students are getting an unfair advantage and results in improved student behavior overall. And that leaves time and energy resources to be devoted to the tougher cases.

Key Points to Remember

• There are three types of group-oriented contingencies: independent, dependent, and interdependent.
• In interdependent group-oriented contingencies, students learn to work together, monitor each other, and productively handle conflicts and problems to the benefit of the group. Examples of this contingency are the good student game, the red/green game, and the class wide peer-assisted self-management program.
• Lottery systems and token economies are types of independent group-oriented contingencies where each student is responsible only for his or her own behavior and everyone earns reinforcement on the same terms.
• Token economies can be set up as an economic simulation system, providing multiple opportunities to embed life lessons in financial management, math, and citizenship.
• Building reinforcement systems from the ground up with all students not only benefits everyone but also provides more powerful upper tiers of intervention and helps decrease the feelings that only students with chronic behavior get reinforced for making positive behavior choices.

Discussion Questions and Activities

1. Compare and contrast the three interdependent group-oriented contingency games: the good student game, the red/green game, and the class wide peer-assisted self-management program. What do you like about each of the games? Is there anything you do not like about them?
2. Let's say you are setting up a token economy in your classroom. Create a list of desired behaviors you would like to reinforce with tokens. Do you consider any of the behaviors you listed more valuable than others? Assign token values to each desired behavior you listed.