Language Impairments

The rule system used in all language (oral, written, and sign) is the form of language. Oral language uses sounds or sound combinations; written language uses letters and letter combinations to produce the words and word combinations (sentences) of language; and manual communication uses hand and finger movements. In oral language, form has three components: phonology, morphology, and syntax.

The sound system of language, phonology, includes rules that govern various sound combinations (Small, 2005). The phonology of language varies with the language. For example, the speech sounds of Hawaiian are different from those of English. The English language uses 45 different speech sound combinations; the Hawaiian language uses only half that number. Swahili and some Native American languages use "clicking" sounds not found in European languages. Rules in each language govern how vowels, consonants, their combinations, and words are used. Awareness of the relationship between sounds in words and sound symbol is called phonological awareness. These skills develop during the preschool years and appear to be prerequisite to reading (Jenkins & O'Connor, 2002; Norris & Hoffman, 2002). Phonological awareness and the development of reading are discussed in the Early Intervention section of this and the next chapter, which is about learning disabilities. For now, remember that the foundation for language is also the foundation for reading and that phonological awareness is one key element of this foundation.

Morphology consists of the rules that govern the parts of words that form the basic elements of their meanings and structures. For example, prefixes and suffixes change the meanings of the roots of specific words: An -ed at the end of a verb changes the tense to past; a un- at the beginning of a word signals negation (that is, it means that something is not). Note the difference in the meanings of the following words: cover, uncover, covered, uncovered, covers, discovered, discovering, discover, discovery, recover. The rules governing the structure of words enable us to understand the words' meanings.

Words are placed in sentences in accordance with the rules of syntax. Like phonology rules, syntax rules vary in different languages. Compare how a sentence is made into a question in the English language ("I want to eat." "Do you want to eat?") to the way statements and questions are formed in Spanish ("Quiero comer." "?Quiere comer?"). Note that in English, the placement of the verb and the subject change when the question is formed. But in Spanish they do not; rather, the person's intonation indicates that a question is being asked. The rules within a language determine the meaning of the communication. In English, nouns and pronouns generally precede verbs in a sentence, and when they do not, the construction might be a question: "It is one o'clock." "Is it one o'clock?" The placement of the words in sentences can change their meaning. For example, "The car hit the boy" has a meaning very different from "The boy hit the car." Rules also structure our placement of adverbs and other parts of speech. Knowing the difference between "I hardly studied this chapter" and "I studied this chapter hard" requires an understanding of how the elements of the English language are put together. For some youngsters these subtleties can be difficult to master.

The second aspect of language, content, reflects the intent and meaning of spoken or written statements. The rules and form of language are important, but for communication to be effective, words must be meaningful. Semantics is the system where the intent and meanings of words and sentences make up the content of the communication. The key words in a statement, the direct (e.g., Susan, the dog, that car) and implied referents (e.g., she, this, that) to these words, and the order of the words used all affect the meaning of the message. When senders of messages use indirect or implied referents, the receiver may not understand the message that is intended. When a child comes home and tells his mother, for instance, that he "left it at school," she might be unclear about what the child left at school, unless he is answering a direct question such as "Where is your jacket?"

The application of language in various communications according to the social context of the situation is called use. How the words are used within the social context of the communication produces "intent." For example, an individual may make a request, give an order, or supply some information through a communication; the communication is different depending on the individual's intent or purpose. Use extends beyond just vocabulary—beyond simply knowing the word for something. An important component of use is pragmatics, which is the understanding of an object's purpose or function. Thus, knowing that a key starts the car or opens a door is necessary to a child's being able to use the word key correctly.

Mastery of form, content, and use combine and lead the individual to the mastery of language, or communicative competence. Being able to produce speech and language correctly is only one part of effective communication (Ruiz, 1995). It is just as important to know when and how to communicate appropriately. Learners need to develop an understanding about what may be said and what should not be said across a variety of situations. To achieve competence in communication, a person must be able to use language correctly in a social context. Being able to communicate effectively is an essential component of being socially able (Olswang, Coggins, & Timler, 2001). Social competence and communicative competence are related. Social conventions or rules are used to initiate conversations and to communicate with others. Individuals who have problems with pragmatics and communicative competence often do not know how to tell peers that they would like to join in a ball game at recess or do not understand when a conversation is finished. Students who have not developed communicative competence also face challenges when interacting with adults and people in authority. For example, the student might know that it's fine to say, "Hey, dude" or "Like, duh" to a peer but not understand that using such expressions with the principal (instead of "Good morning, Mrs. Rodgers" or ''Yes, of course") may lead to trouble. Teachers can make a difference by helping students truly master communication skills. They can provide many opportunities for students to practice using language correctly and appropriately every school day.