Learners May Be More Intelligent in Some Domains Than in Others

Although learners who perform well on one intelligence test also tend to perform well on others, a single high score certainly does not guarantee that a learner will perform well on other measures. For instance, some children score higher on tests that assess verbal abilities than on tests that assess nonverbal, spatial skills (e.g., assembling puzzles, analyzing complex geometric designs). Other children’s test scores show the opposite pattern.

In response to such findings, some psychologists have suggested that children may develop two or more different “intelligences” that are somewhat independent of one another. For example, Sternberg suggests that people may be more or less intelligent in three different domains. Sternberg calls his theory of intelligence a triarchic model of intelligence, in part because of the three dimensions depicted in the below table and in part because of the three domains described here. Analytical intelligence involves making sense of, analyzing, contrasting, and evaluating the kinds of information and problems that are often seen in academic settings and on traditional intelligence tests. Creative intelligence involves imagination, invention, and synthesis of ideas within the context of new situations. Practical intelligence involves applying knowledge and skills effectively to manage and respond to everyday problems and social situations. (Sternberg, 1998, 2004; Sternberg et al., 2000.)

Sternberg's Three Dimensions of Intelligence

Environment Context	Prior Experience	Cognitive Processes
Adapts behavior to fit environment Adapts the environment to fit one's needs Selects an environment conducive to success	Deals with a new situation by drawing on past experience Deals with a familiar situation quickly and efficiently	Identifies important and relevant information Encodes information to enhance memory Identifies and executes effective strategies Monitors progress toward a goal Applies other cognitive processes as well

Another psychologist, Howard Gardner, suggests that there are at least eight different, relatively independent abilities (Gardner, 1983, 1998, 1999). These multiple intelligences are described in the below table. (He suggests that there may also be a ninth intelligence, which he calls existential intelligence. However, he acknowledges that evidence for it is weaker than that for the other eight intelligences (Gardner, 2000a, 2003), and so I have omitted it from the table.) Gardner’s multiple-intelligences perspective offers the possibility that most learners have the potential to be fairly intelligent in one way or another, perhaps showing exceptional promise in language, mathematics, music, or athletics.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Type of Intelligence	General Description	Examples of Relevant Behaviors
Linguistic Intelligence	Ability to use language effectively	Making persuasive arguments Writing poetry Noticing subtle nuances in word meanings
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence	Ability to reason logically, especially in mathematics and science	Solving mathematical problems quickly Generating mathematical proofs Formulating and testing hypotheses about observed phenomena
Spatial Intelligence	Ability to notice details of what one sees and to imagine and manipulate visual objects in one’s mind	Conjuring up mental images Drawing a visual likeness of an object Making fine discriminations among very similar objects
Musical Intelligence	Ability to create, comprehend, and appreciate music	Playing a musical instrument Composing a musical work Showing a keen awareness of the underlying structure of music
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence	Ability to use one’s body skillfully	Dancing Playing basketball Performing pantomime
Interpersonal Intelligence	Ability to notice subtle aspects of other people’s behaviors	Reading another person’s mood Detecting another person’s underlying intentions and desires Using knowledge of others to influence their thoughts and behaviors
Intrapersonal Intelligence	Awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires	Discriminating among such similar emotions as sadness and regret Identifying the motives guiding one’s own behavior Using self-knowledge to relate more effectively with others
Naturalist Intelligence	Ability to recognize patterns in nature and differences among various life-forms and natural objects	Identifying members of particular plant or animal species Classifying natural forms (e.g., rocks, types of mountains) Applying one’s knowledge of nature in such activities as farming, landscaping, or animal training

Gardner presents some evidence to support the existence of multiple intelligences. For example, he describes people who are quite skilled in one area (perhaps in composing music) and yet have seemingly average abilities in other areas. He also points out that people who suffer brain damage sometimes lose abilities that are restricted primarily to one intelligence (e.g., they may show deficits only in verbal skills). However, many psychologists do not believe that Gardner’s evidence is sufficiently compelling to support the notion of eight distinctly different abilities(N. Brody, 1992; Corno et al., 2002; Kail, 1998; Waterhouse, 2006). Others disagree that abilities in specific domains, such as in music or bodily movement, are really “intelligence” per se (Bracken, McCallum, & Shaughnessy, 1999; Sattler, 2001). Still others are taking a wait-and-see attitude about Gardner’s theory until more research is conducted.