Writing Organization Study Guide: Pre-GED Language Arts, Writing

The practice quiz for this study guide can be found at:

Writing Organization Practice Problems: Pre-GED Language Arts, Writing

In this aricle, you'll learn to recognize clear and logical organization in a piece of writing, as well as how to combine and arrange sentences and paragraphs in a manner that increases a piece's unity and coherence.

Organization is an important part of writing. It helps you put your thoughts in order so that your writing accomplishes its intended purpose. It also helps other people read what you have written and clearly understand your meaning.

Here's a simple example: Imagine that you are writing directions for a friend to get from school to your house. You might write something like this:

Leave school through the front doors.
When you reach the sidewalk, turn right.
Walk one mile to Baker Street.
Turn right on Baker Street.
Go to the fourth house on the right.

The purpose of these directions is to get your friend from point A (the school) to point B (your house), without making him or her wander all over town to do it. As a piece of writing, the instructions are effective because they are clear, well organized, and don't contain any unnecessary information.

Imagine, however, that you wrote the instructions like this:

Go to the fourth house on the right.
When you reach the sidewalk, turn right.
Walk one mile to Baker Street.
Leave school through the front doors.
Turn right on Baker Street.

You'd be lucky if your friend still spoke to you after receiving instructions like these! Because the instructions are poorly organized, your friend would probably never find your house, so your writing would not accomplish the purpose for which you intended it.

The GED Language Arts, Writing Exam will probably not test your ability to tell someone how to get from school to your house. However, it will test your ability to organize information, recognize when writing is effective, and realize when writing needs more work. You should expect to see the following questions on the GED:

In what order should the sentences or paragraphs be?
Which is the most organized combination of sentences or paragraphs?
Which sentence or paragraph should be cut to make a passage more organized?

To answer these kinds of questions, you'll need to know a few basic things about what makes an effective paragraph or essay. This chapter will teach you about paragraphs including their three key components and how to arrange them into an effective essay.

Effective Paragraphs

You see paragraphs all the time when you read—blocks of words separated by an indented or a skipped line. They might be a full page in length or longer, or they might be a single sentence. On the GED, you'll need to know not just what they look like but also what makes them effective.

Technically speaking, a paragraph is a group of one or more sentences that focus on a single main idea. The main idea is the writer's key point, the most important thing that he or she is trying to tell the reader. Each paragraph should have only one main idea; multiple ideas should be separated into multiple paragraphs, either by indenting or by skipping a line.

A paragraph is considered effective when it clearly states and supports the main idea without adding any unnecessary information. If the example of the instructions we used in the previous section were in paragraph form (rather than list form), the first set of instructions would be considered effective, while the second would not. You will see many other examples of effective paragraphs throughout this chapter.

Topic Sentences

A topic sentence is a sentence that clearly states a paragraph's main idea. It is nearly always either the first or the last sentence of the paragraph. Another way to think of the topic sentence is as the sentence that tells us the writer's key point.

Placing the topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph immediately tells the reader what the paragraph is about. In addition, putting the topic sentence first can help the writer keep his or her ideas organized. Here's an example of a paragraph in which the topic sentence is placed at the beginning:

(1) Cell phones are a big waste of money. (2) They do not provide a single service that was not available before they were invented in cheaper and more reliable forms. (3) Most of the services they provide are still available; home phones, personal cameras, maps, and board games can all still be bought cheaply at a store and enjoyed for little or no further expense. (4) Those services which are less available, such as pay phones, would still be around if it weren't for the fact that cell phone owners no longer use them.

In this example, the writer's point is that cell phones are a waste of money. That idea is clearly stated in the first sentence, which is the topic sentence of the paragraph. Here's another example:

(1) Thomas Edison was one of the most prolific inventors of all time. (2) One of his most famous inventions was a long-lasting incandescent light bulb. (3) He also invented the motion picture camera. (4) In addition, he invented some of the technology that went into Henry Ford's automobiles.

In this example, the writer's point, that Edison was an exceptionally productive inventor, is also stated in the first sentence of this paragraph, and is the topic sentence of the paragraph. Remember, although the topic sentence often comes at the top of the paragraph, it doesn't always. Sometimes it comes at the end. Here is a sample paragraph with the topic sentence at the end:

(1) These days you can hardly walk down the street without passing half a dozen people gabbing away on cell phones. (2) Cell phones are considered by many people to have replaced such reliable, economical products as maps, board games, and even regular telephones. (3) Despite their increasing popularity, however, I believe that cell phones are a waste of money.

This paragraph has the same main idea as the previous paragraph on cell phones, but the writer has chosen to put the topic sentence at the end, for greater impact.

Sometimes it can be difficult to identify which sentence in the paragraph states the main idea. One way of doing so is to ask yourself, What is the writer's main point? Let's use the passage on cell phones as an example. Is the writer's main purpose to tell us about people talking on cell phones? No, that's just an illustration. Is it to tell us that cell phones are replacing other kinds of products? Maybe. Is it to state that cell phones are a waste of money? That makes more sense. Therefore, the topic sentence must be sentence (3).

The following exercises will help you practice identifying the topic sentence. Remember, the topic sentence is often the first sentence in the paragraph, but not always.

(1) Finding the topic sentence in a paragraph is very easy. (2) All you have to do is read the paragraph and determine what it's about. (3) Then, find the sentence that clearly states that idea. (4) If you can't decide, you can also try reading one sentence at a time and asking yourself, "Is this the writer's main point?"

Which of the sentences in the paragraph above is the topic sentence? When looking for the topic sentence, always check the first sentence of the paragraph. In this case, the first sentence does state the main idea of the paragraph, so it is the topic sentence.

Let's try another one. Read the paragraph, and then identify which is the topic sentence.

(1) Finding the topic sentence in a paragraph is not as easy as teachers claim. (2) First of all, it's often difficult to understand what a paragraph is about. (3) Second, even if you can understand what it's about, sometimes more than one sentence seems to state the main idea. (4) Finally, sometimes paragraphs are not well written and contain no topic sentence at all. (5) Isn't that always true to some degree?

Which of the sentences in the paragraph is the topic sentence?

sentence (1)
sentence (2)
sentence (3)
sentence (4)
sentence (5)

Answer: a

The main idea of this paragraph is exactly the opposite of the one in the previous paragraph, but it is clearly stated just the same. Sentence (1) states the main idea, so it is the topic sentence.

Finding the topic sentence in a well-written paragraph is usually pretty easy, since it states the main idea clearly and is supported by all the other sentences. However, on the real GED the questions will be a little trickier. You may be asked to choose a good topic sentence for a paragraph that doesn't have one, or to find the topic sentence mixed in with several other sentences and move it to its proper place in the paragraph. Therefore, it's important to know what makes a topic sentence different from other sentences in a paragraph. Here are some ways to recognize a topic sentence:

It makes a point. A good topic sentence does not just state something obvious, like "This is a paragraph about cell phones." It makes a point that helps develop the overall argument of an essay. For example, "The services provided by cell phones are all available at cheaper costs in other products."
It introduces a new idea. Remember, each paragraph should contain only one main idea. All the sentences in a paragraph should be about the same idea, and the sentence that introduces that idea is the topic sentence.
It does not use specific examples. Specific examples are usually part of the supporting sentences in a paragraph (which will be discussed in the next section). Topic sentences usually contain more general information.

Let's try some more practice. In the following paragraph, the sentences are intentionally written out of order. See if you can identify which is the topic sentence.

(1) She never calls when she says she's going to call. (2) Worst of all, she never wants to pay for anything when we finally get to go out. (3) Janet is a terrible girlfriend. (4) Furthermore, she sometimes makes a date and then calls it off at the last second.

Did you find the topic sentence? Sentences (1), (2), and (4) are specific examples of things Janet does. Since topic sentences usually do not contain specific examples, we can be pretty sure sentence (3) is the topic sentence. Remember, ask yourself "What is the writer's point?" Is it that Janet is a terrible girlfriend? Yes, so sentence (3) is the topic sentence.

Support

When applied to writing, support refers to all the information in a paragraph that supports the main point, or topic sentence. Once you're comfortable with identifying the topic sentence of a paragraph, the support will be easy to find.

Support can refer to many different kinds of information. It can include examples that help prove the topic sentence or thesis statement, such as:

facts (such as statistics or dates)
references to other works
quotes from credible sources
personal stories

Support can also include sentences that clarify, develop, or respond to information stated in the examples. Take a look at the following short paragraph, and see if you can pick out which sentence is the topic sentence and which sentences are support.

(1) Cell phones are a waste of money. (2) My cell phone bill totaled over $1,200 last year. (3) That's more than three times what a land line would have cost!

Since the main idea of this paragraph is that cell phones are a waste of money, sentence (1) must be the topic sentence. That means sentences (2) and (3) are support.

Here's another example we've seen before:

(1) Janet is a terrible girlfriend. (2) She never calls when she says she's going to call. (3) Furthermore, she sometimes makes a date and then calls it off at the last second. (4) Worst of all, she never wants to pay for anything when we finally do go out.

The main idea of this paragraph is that Janet is a terrible girlfriend, which the writer states in sentence (1). Sentences (2), (3), and (4) provide examples that support the main idea.

On the GED, you won't be specifically asked to identify which sentences are main ideas and which are support. Instead, you'll be asked how to organize main ideas and support. In other words, you'll be asked to look carefully at individual sentences and paragraphs, and determine what order they should be in to make the paragraph most effective.

There are a number of common organizational patterns that can be used to put supporting sentences in order. They include:

Chronological order. This pattern is used when the writer is describing what happened, should happen, or will happen over time. For example:

The supporting sentences in this paragraph are organized in chronological order. This is the only logical organization for this paragraph, since putting the sentences in any other order would create confusion.

Order of importance. This places sentences in order from least to most important, or vice-versa. In the previously stated example involving the terrible girlfriend, the sentences are placed in order of what is least important to the writer, leading up to what is most important—that Janet never pays for anything.
Comparison and contrast. This is used when the writer is trying to show how two things are similar or different. For example:

As you can see, sentences (2) through (4) support the main idea, which is that the writer's friends have very different personalities. They are organized in order to compare and contrast each friend to the other.

Transitions

You might have noticed that some sentences contain phrases that make them easy to place in order. For example, in the previous paragraph, the phrase on the other hand tells us that sentence (3) must come after a contrasting idea. It wouldn't make sense to say on the other hand if there were nothing to compare to. Likewise, the phrase most unique of all tells us that sentence (4) comes last because it is comparing Paul to all the writer's other friends.

These tell-tale phrases are transitions; words or phrases that connect one idea to the next. They're like the written equivalent of road signs. When you drive, road signs tell you where to stop, where to turn, and so on, to help you arrive at your destination. Transitions do the same thing in writing, only instead of helping someone get to a physical place, they help readers arrive at the same conclusion as the writer.

For example, let's say you're writing down the recipe for your Aunt Betty's chocolate pie. Without transitions, the recipe might look something like this:

(1) Take out two bowls and a ready-made pie crust. (2) In one bowl, mix sugar, cocoa, gelatin, and salt. (3) Mix the eggs, vanilla, and butter in the other bowl. (4) Blend everything together and pour it into the pie crust. (5) Bake it at 400 degrees for 20 minutes.

As you can see, all the necessary information is there, but it feels a little abrupt and hard to follow. Now take a look at the same recipe with transitions. The transitions are in bold so you can find them more easily.

(1) First, take out two bowls and a ready-made pie crust. (2) In one bowl, mix sugar, cocoa, gelatin, and salt. (3) Next, mix the eggs, vanilla, and butter in the other bowl. (4) Then blend everything together, and pour it into the pie crust. (5) Finally, bake it at 400 degrees for 20 minutes.

Even in such a simple paragraph, transitions can make things much clearer and easier to follow. In more complex pieces of writing, such as essays, transitions become even more important.

The GED will test your ability to use transitions effectively by presenting you with a paragraph and then asking what phrase might improve a particular sentence in that paragraph. For example, let's take another look at the recipe paragraph without transitions:

(1) Take out two bowls and a ready-made pie crust. (2) In one bowl, mix sugar, cocoa, gelatin, and salt. (3) Mix the eggs, vanilla, and butter in the other bowl. (4) Blend everything together, and pour it into the pie crust. (5) Bake it at 400 degrees for 20 minutes.

A GED question based on this paragraph might look something like this:

Sentence (5): Bake it at 400 degrees for 20 minutes.

The most effective revision to this sentence would include beginning it with which of the following?

In addition,
However,
Meanwhile,
Finally,
And,

Answer: d

You might have noticed in the above example that some of the answer choices didn't make much sense. For example, try placing choice b in front of sentence (5): However, bake it at 400 degrees for 20 minutes. Sounds pretty awkward, right? That's because certain transitions serve certain purposes. These purposes include:

Introducing examples:

The phrases for example and in fact are transitions that tell the reader an example is coming up.

Showing addition:

As this example demonstrates, transitions such as also and in addition let readers know that the writer is continuing with the same line of thought.

Showing Contrast:

Contrast basically means difference. When presenting two ideas that are different in some way, a writer uses transition words to indicate the change from one to the other. The idea presented in the second sentence is very different from the idea in the first sentence, so the writer uses the transition word however to alert readers of the change.

The best way to become familiar with transitions is to read a lot. By reading, you will see how transitions are used effectively and eventually become more comfortable with using them yourself.

It can also be helpful to study a list of transitions and memorize a few each day. That way, when you come across phrases such as in addition, on the other hand, and meanwhile on the GED test, you'll recognize them for what they are.

The following are a few examples of various kinds of transitions. Note that the list does not include every transition in the English language. It's simply intended to give you an idea of the most common ones, so that you'll be familiar with them during test time.

Introducing examples: for example, for instance, in particular, specifically
Showing addition: and, also, furthermore, in addition
Showing comparison and contrast: however, on the other hand, instead, in contrast, rather, unlike, but, yet, like, likewise, similarly
Showing cause and effect: so, because, since, therefore, consequently, as a result
Showing time sequence: first, second, next, then, last, finally, meanwhile
Summarizing ideas: in any case, at any rate, all in all, in summary, to summarize

Effective Essays

An essay is a short piece of writing that presents the author's point of view on, or beliefs about, a particular subject. Keep in mind that short doesn't mean that essays should only be a few sentences or paragraphs; it simply means that they are not long enough to be considered books. In fact, an essay can be as long as 50 pages or more. For the purposes of the GED, however, most essays will be only a couple of paragraphs long.

Generally speaking, an essay is made up of an introduction, body, and conclusion. The introduction is the first paragraph; it introduces the subject of the essay. The body is the meat of the essay; it includes everything between the introduction and conclusion, and may be made up of several paragraphs. The conclusion is the last paragraph; it summarizes, or concludes the essay.

Just as you have to know how to put supporting sentences in order on the GED, you also have to know how to put paragraphs in order to make an effective essay. Fortunately, essays use the same organizational patterns as paragraphs: chronological order, order of importance, and comparison and contrast. The only difference is that instead of organizing supporting sentences, you'll be organizing paragraphs by their main ideas.

Let's take a look at the following short essay. The essay has a good introduction and conclusion, but its body paragraphs are poorly organized. Read the essay and, using your knowledge of organizational patterns, determine the best order for the paragraphs.

(A)

(1) In the United States, it is not very common to encounter a person who speaks multiple languages. (2) Many people choose not to study a foreign language because they feel it will be too difficult. (3) The truth is, however, that learning a foreign language can be fun.

(B)

(4) A class that focuses on conversation, however, can be interesting and fun. (5) Students learn more quickly through conversation than through grammar because they enjoy it more. (6) For example, in my Spanish class, people sleep through the grammar lesson and perk up when they get to speak.

(C)

(7) Language classes are considered to be difficult or boring because they often focus on grammar. (8) Many students find grammar too complicated to learn well. (9) In fact, a recent magazine article stated that schools don't even bother to teach English grammar because no one wants to learn it.

(D)

(10) The key to making language fun, therefore, is to focus on conversation. (11) After all, we don't learn languages in order to know grammar. (12) We learn them so that we will be able to communicate with others.

Paragraph (A) is the introduction; it introduces the topic of the essay. Paragraph (D) is the conclusion and concludes the essay. But what about paragraphs (B) and (C)? They should be organized by comparison and contrast, but as the transition word however tells us, they're in the wrong order. Paragraph (C) should come before paragraph (B).

The practice quiz for this study guide can be found at:

Writing Organization Practice Problems: Pre-GED Language Arts, Writing

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