Parenting Styles and Parent-Child Interactions

Researchers have identified important differences in parenting styles which have differential consequences for children’s development (Baumrind, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Four different styles have been identified that differ with regard to parental control, responsiveness, democratic communication, and nurturance. An authoritarian parenting style is characterized by high control, low responsiveness, and low nurturance. These parents set rigid rules and use strict discipline to assure compliance. Children with authoritarian parents have little authority and opportunity to negotiate decisions. Authoritative parents also set clear standards and limits for behavior, but they provide rationales for rules and decisions. These parents communicate more openly with their children, and encourage their children to take responsibility and to regulate themselves (i.e., autonomy supportive). On the other end of the continuum, are two types of neglectful parenting styles. Permissive-indulgent parents are highly responsive to their children, but place few demands on them. Rules are not consistently enforced and children are left to regulate their behaviors. Last, permissive-indifferent parents are emotionally detached, and not involved in their children’s lives.

Research has shown that parenting styles can make a difference in children’s academic motivation. In general, motivation is enhanced when parents allow children to have input into decisions, state expectations as suggestions, acknowledge children’s feelings and needs, and provide children with alternatives and choices (Dornbusch, Ritter, Liederman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987). In contrast, parenting practices that are either too controlling or too permissive can undermine children’s motivation and achievement. The positive influence of authoritative parenting is generally found across different ethnic groups in the United States, although White and Hispanic adolescents may benefit the most from authoritative parenting (Dornbusch et al., 1987).

Other parent-child interactions can influence students’ motivation to school. For example, Newman (2000) reported that parents who give children hints and prompts rather than automatically supplying answers encourage children’s questioning and critical thinking—a pattern found more often among children higher in motivation. Jacobs and Bleeker (2004) reported that parents were more likely to purchase math- and science-related toys and activities for sons than for daughters. Research also suggests that parents help to shape their children’s self-perceptions of ability through causal attributions or explicit statements about their child’s performance, as well as the types of activities they encourage or discourage (Eccles et al., 1998). Parents who make adaptive attributions for their children’s performance, have high confidence in the children’s abilities, and value schoolwork, encourage in their children positive motivational beliefs such as attributions, self-efficacy, and task values. Recent evidence suggests that parental expectations for achievement formed in early adolescence can predict educational plans and career choices 12 years later (Jacobs & Bleeker, 2004).