Sexual Orientation

NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF SEXUAL MINORITY YOUTH

Like all adolescents, sexual minority youth face the developmental task of consolidating their identities within the context of their families, peers, and communities. That is, like heterosexual youth, sexual minority youth are trying to answer the question of who they are in relation to others and the world around them. To the extent that youths live in a social context that is characterized by homophobic attitudes and the heterosexist assumption that all so-called normal youth are heterosexual, sexual minority youths must weigh the risks of disclosing their sexual orientation. Conforming feminine or masculine appearance may make concealment a realistic option for some sexual minority youths. In any case, the on-going decisions to disclose or conceal one's identity from various people in the social network (e.g., family members, friends, teachers, and other adults) can be a significant source of chronic stress for some youths, particularly for those from racial/ethnic groups, religious groups, families, schools and/or communities that are intolerant of same-sex sexuality. Such adolescents may remain closeted rather than risk the loss of family and/or community support. In some cases, disclosure could result in the threat of violence and/or homelessness. Overall, however, same-sex attracted youths (particularly boys) are acknowledging same-sex attraction, questioning their sexual orientation and/or coming out at younger ages than in past generations (D'Augelli, 2005), perhaps due to increasing visibility of sexual minority individuals and families in the media and in many communities.

Regardless of the decision to disclose or conceal samesex attraction, this milestone is considered the beginning of the coming out process for sexual minority youth. While identity models have portrayed a linear, lock-step process of gay and lesbian identity development that begins with acknowledgment and acceptance of one's same-sex sexuality and ends with claiming a stable identity and disclosing it to others, the actual experiences of this process have been demonstrated (most notably in young women) to be rarely this simple, tidy, and final (Diamond, 2005; 2006). Some youths altogether reject sexual identity labels and categories and others identify as queer rather than gay, lesbian, or bisexual as a way to reclaim or reframe a derogatory label as one of power and pride.

RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS

As noted above, sexual minority youths face chronic stressors that are typically not a part of heterosexual youths' life experience. These chronic stressors, referred to collectively as “minority stress” (Meyer, 2003) include experiences of discrimination and prejudice, anticipation of rejection, internalized homophobia (i.e., negative attitudes and feelings incorporated into the self-image), and, as mentioned above, disclosing or concealing one's identity in various social contexts and relationships. Perhaps the most pervasive and destructive minority stressor frequently experienced by GLBT students in schools is peer harassment, bullying, and violence (Russell, Franz & Driscoll, 2001; Human Rights Watch, 2001; Udry & Chantala, 2002). A 2005 national survey of sexual minority youths' perceptions and experiences of their school climate found that two out of three students had been verbally harassed because of their perceived sexual orientation. Half of the participants had been verbally harassed because of the way they expressed their gender. A full three out of four participants felt unsafe at school because of treatment they received because of one personal characteristic, usually sexual orientation or gender expression (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006).

Harassment affects the educational outcomes of sexual minority youth. Large population-based studies have found that sexual minority youth are significantly more likely than their heterosexual peers to be threatened or harassed at school and to skip school because they feel unsafe (Goodenow, Szalacha, & Westheimer, 2006; Robin et al., 2002). Sexual minority youth also report lower levels of school belonging (Galliher, Rostosky, & Hughes, 2004; Rostosky, Owens, Zimmerman, & Riggle, 2003) and more negative attitudes about school and difficulties in school (Russell, Seif, & Truong, 2001). Sexual minority students are also less likely to perceive that there is an adult at school that is available to them for support (Goodenow, Szalacha, & Westheimer, 2006). The combined effect of a negative school environment and meager social support increases the risk for poor educational outcomes (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006; Murdock & Bolch, 2005).

Strong social support from family, from peers, or from other gay-affirmative adults (including teachers and other school personnel) may buffer at least some of the effects of minority stress on sexual minority youths. However, sexual minority youths who do not enjoy adequate social support or who have difficulty coping with the levels of minority stress in their lives may be at increased risk for poor psychosocial outcomes. While the majority of sexual minority youths develop coping strategies and coping resources that help to minimize the effects of minority stress, the overall higher rates of psychological distress (Elze, 2002; Udry & Chantala, 2002) and substance abuse problems (Rostosky, Owens, & Zimmerman & Riggle, 2003; Russell, Driscoll, & Truong, 2002) among these youths are of serious concern. For example, research has established links between the school bullying and victimization experiences of sexual minority youth and their higher rates of suicidality and depressive symptoms (Bontempo & D'Augelli, 2002; Goodenow, Szalacha, & Westheimer, 2006).

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOLS AND CLASSROOMS REGARDING RISK

Providing access to safe schools for all children and adolescents is a necessary requirement for positive educational outcomes. The increased risks of harassment and educational disruption and interruption for sexual minority youths must be addressed at multiple levels. First, state-wide legislation that comprehensively and specifically protects students of all socially disadvantaged groups must be enacted. The majority of GLB students in the United States are not protected, and research has demonstrated that blanket coverage through generic legislation that does not enumerate protected categories is no more effective in reducing harassment than no legislation at all (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006).

District-wide and school-level establishment and enforcement of strong anti-bullying policies that are comprehensive and inclusive of sexual orientation sends a strong message that all students will be protected from physical and psychological harm. Research findings indicate that GLB students in schools with comprehensive anti-bullying policies that include sexual orientation are more likely to report harassment, and teachers in such schools are more likely to intervene in such harassment than those GLB students and teachers in schools with generic anti-bullying policies (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006).

Safe schools create and adopt inclusive curricula that affirm the intrinsic worth of all individuals, including those who are sexual minorities. All students, including sexual minority students, have a right to a school environment that is safe and that facilitates rather than inhibits learning. Integrating sexual minority lives into classroom curricula models acceptance and appreciation of diversity. Resources on GLBT-related topics should be made available in the library and on the Internet. Students should be exposed to positive representations of GLBT issues, achievements and contributions, and current events.

At the classroom level, appropriate professional training on issues related to sexual minority youths and families should be provided since the majority of GLBT students indicate that they talked with a teacher at least once during the previous school year (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006). Unfortunately, many teachers and school staff lack even basic knowledge about sexual orientation and, therefore, are unprepared to provide information, protection, or support to their sexual minority students (Ryan & Rivers, 2003). Beyond providing support to these students, however, teachers and staff need to be trained in and encouraged to exercise skills in confronting the use of derogatory language and in effectively intervening in anti-gay bullying and harassment. Such training has been demonstrated to be significantly associated with an improved school climate (Szalacha, 2003).

School personnel should also be provided with resources (time, expertise, rewards) for grappling with their own assumptions about and biases toward others who are different from themselves. To provide effective multicultural education for students, school personnel must first have opportunities to address the ways they as individuals have personally benefited from and suffered from power hierarchies attached to social categories. This type of professional development requires a safe and trusting environment and investments of time, effort, and resources. However, the effect of this investment on school climate and educational outcomes can be significant.

At the student level, research has shown that sexual minority youths who perceive that their teachers are supportive of them and that their school environment is not rejecting of them report better school-related adjustment (Murdock & Bolch, 2005). Schools should be safe places for both GLBT students and teachers. In the 2005 school climate survey, over half of sexual minority students reported that they did not know an out teacher or school staff member (Kosciw & Diaz, 2006).

Finally, sexual minority youths in schools with gay/ straight alliances (GSAs) or other types of groups aimed at providing support and ending discrimination and prejudice are less than half as likely as sexual minority students in other schools to report school victimization or to skip school due to fear of victimization (Goodenow, Szalacha, & Westheimer, 2006). Attending a school with a GSA (or similar support group) or perceiving that one has access to a school staff person to whom one could go for support is associated with lower rates of suicidality (Goodenow, Szalacha, & Westheimer, 2006). Principals and other school administrations need to visibly and vocally support of these groups.

SOME SUGGESTED RESOURCES FOR EDUCATORS

Safe Schools Coalition (http://www.safeschoolscoalition. org) has lesson plans and handouts for addressing issues of sexual diversity in age appropriate ways in the classroom. There are also many resources for sexual minority youths and their friends and allies, including greeting cards that can be downloaded.

The American Psychological Association's Healthy Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Students Project was founded “to strengthen the capacity of the nation's schools to prevent the behavioral health risks of lesbian, gay, and bisexual students through knowledge development, dissemination, and application, working with and through national organizations of school stakeholders.” Their Web site (http://www.apa.org/ed/hlgbaboutus.html) provides links to national education organizations' policies and the latest research on sexual minority youths, including a link to Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel.

The Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network (http://www.glsen.org) “strives to assure that each member of every school community is valued and respected regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity/expression.” More than 1,000 resources related to current events and issues, tools for ensuring safe schools, policies and legal issues, and lesson plans and curricula for the classroom are available from its Web site.

Advocates For Youth Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning (GLBT) Youth Initiative (http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/about/glbtq.htm) “works to address homophobia within communities, sensitize youth-serving professionals to the needs of GLBTQ youth and to encourage GLBTQ youth to become powerful advocates for themselves and other youth by sharing culturally relevant information and access to tailored services.” Available at this Web site are tips for teachers and teens for dealing with harassment and for creating inclusive programs. Several fact sheets and tip sheets are available for transgender youth and for the adults in their lives.

Parents, Friends, and Families of Lesbians and Gays (http://www.pflag.org) offers support and information for families of LGBT people with more than 400 chapters nationwide. PFLAG offers Safe Schools Training for school personnel.

Children of Lesbian and Gays Everywhere (http://colage.org/) was formed “to engage, connect, and empower people to make the world a better place for children of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and/or transgender parents and families.” The Web site offers a link to “Tips for making the classroom safe for children with LGBT parents,” as well as lists of books and films.