Learning disability is a general term that describes specific kinds of learning problems. A learning disability can cause a person to have trouble learning and using certain skills. The skills most often affected are: reading, writing, listening, speaking, reasoning, and doing math.
Almost 3 million children (ages 6 through 21) have some form of a learning disability and receive special education in school. In fact, over half of all children who receive special education have a learning disability (Twenty-fourth Annual Report to Congress, U.S. Department of Education, 2002). It's important, though, to realize that learning disabilities (LD) vary from person to person. One person with LD may not have the same kind of learning problems as another person with LD. One may have trouble with reading and writing. Another may have problems with understanding math. Still another person may have trouble in each of these areas, as well as with understanding what people are saying.
This A-Z Topics page is intended to connect you with more information about the disability. The resources we've listed here will lead you to groups with great authority on learning disabilities and and to what research is revealing about both the medical aspects of LD and effective education for the nearly 3 million students with LD. You'll also find research and practical advice on behavior management, and the latest thinking on appropriate procedures for diagnosing LD.
The list below isn't intended to be exhaustive of the resources available. It's intended to get you started on your search for information about LD.
Quick Intros to Learning Disabilities
Diagnosing LD
The diagnosis of learning disabilities is often a sticky issue. Of particular concern are the various methods used to test children suspected of having a learning disability and the differing eligibility criteria that states apply to decide whether or not a child qualifies for special education and related services. A lot rides on those decisions. Depending on the diagnostic process used, the resulting picture may vary as to the child's abilities and difficulties. And based upon the picture that emerges of the child, decisions are made about the education and special assistance that the child will receive (or not) and the resources that the state will commit to provide the child with special education (or not).
- What's the primary approach to diagnosing LD? An overview of the discrepancy approach.
Fletcher, J.M., Francis, D.J., Shaywitz, S.E., Lyon, G.R., Foorman, B.R., Stuebing, K.K., Shaywitz, B.A. (1998, Fall). Intelligent testing and the discrepancy model for children with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 13(4), 186-203.
This article isn't available online, but it's worthwhile pursuing at a library, resource room, or from the publisher itself. It reviews the historical basis and rationale for identifying children as learning disabled on the basis of a discrepancy between scores on measures of intelligence and achievement. In addition, to a historical perspective, recent studies that address the validity of classifications of children with learning disabilities (LD) according to the presence or absence of discrepancies between IQ and achievement are reviewed. Throughout this article, the role of IQ testing in the designation of children as learning disabled for research and public policy is addressed. The authors conclude that IQ tests have limited utility for the identification of children with LD. Alternative approaches to classification that incorporate the idea of a discrepancy between aptitude and achievement are discussed. (ERIC: Authors)
- What else is possible? Alternate approaches.
Torgesen, J.K., &Wagner, R.K. (1998, Fall). Alternative diagnostic approaches for specific developmental reading disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 13(4), 220-232.
Research on reading disabilities conducted within the last two decades provides evidence in support of new approaches to the diagnoses of reading disabilities in children and adults. This article summarizes recently acquired information about a specific set of linguistic-cognitive markers for reading disabilities, and it also describes efforts to develop measures of these markers in the areas of phonological awareness, rapid automatic naming, and verbal short-term memory. In addition, implications of this new information for the diagnosis of reading disabilities are considered. (ERIC: Authors)
- The official policy of the Educational Testing Service (ETS).
Office of Disability Policy, Educational Testing Service. (1999, June). Policy statement for documentation of a learning disability in adolescents and adults (Rev.). Princeton, NJ: Author. (Available online at: www.ets.org. Enter in the search box at the top right "documenting learning disabilities." The document should be among the top 10 search results.)
This document provides individuals, schools, professional diagnosticians, and service providers with a common understanding and knowledge base of those components of documentation that are necessary to validate a learning disability and the need for reasonable accommodations for candidates seeking to register with various Educational Testing Service testing programs.
- What the states use: The situation in 2003
Ahearn, E.M. (2003, August). Specific learning disability: Current approaches to identification and proposals for change. Alexandria, VA: Project FORUM. Available for purchase online at: http://www.nasdse.org/publications.cfm
The purpose of this report is to provide a succinct summary of the major issues in SLD identification and outline some proposals for change. Starting with a review of current requirements in federal law, the document goes on to discuss several SLD identification approaches and the way they have been used, current state practices in SLD identification, and alternative approaches that are being proposed by reseachers and stakeholder organizations. It ends with a discussion of the challenges to reaching consensus on any change in the identification procedure for specific learning disabilities.
- Where to go from here? Recommendations from the National Center for Learning Disabilities.
National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). (2004). Keep kids learning: A new model to identify students with learning disabilities before they fail. Available online at: http://www.ncld.org/publications-a-more/parent-advocacy-guides
- And last but not least...the Center's that looking into it all.
http://nrcld.org/
The National Research Center on Learning Disabilities (NRCLD) has been funded by OSEP to address the complex issues surrounding the proper identification of students with learning disabilities who need special education services. Specifically, the Center is analyzing existing methods of identifying students with learning disabilities. It is also studying state and local policies to determine factors that explain the differences in the number and characteristics of students identified with learning disabilities from state to state, from district to district within a state, and even from school to school within a district. On NRCLD's Web site, you can access the results of these efforts, including:
- Reschly, D.J., Hosp, J.L., & Schmied, C.M. (2003, August). And miles to go...State SLD requirements and authoritative recommendations. Nashville, TN: National Research Center on Learning Disabilities. This paper focuses on the major events leading to the widespread rejection of the discrepancy criterion and an analysis of current state SLD requirements in relation to proposed changes in SLD classification criteria. Possibilities for and barriers to change are addressed in this analysis. Available online at: http://nrcld.org/html/research/states/index.html
- Responsiveness-to-intervention symposium. (2003, December). NRCLD hosted a two-day symposium focusing on responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI) issues. (RTI refers to individual, comprehensive student-centered assessment models that focus on applying a problem-solving framework to identify and address a student's difficulties. For an overview of RTI's core concepts, visit: http://nrcld.org/html/research/rti/concepts.html.) The speakers, discussants, and participants assembled represented the wide diversity of individuals with a vested interest in LD determination issues. Sessions were organized around critical questions ranging from "How should screening for secondary intervention occur?" to "What are alternative models to LD identification other than RTI?" To access the papers presented during the symposium, PowerPoint presentations used by the presenters, and video of the symposium sessions, when available, visit: http://www.nrcld.org/symposium2003
LD in More Detail
- While you're at NICHCY, might as well read our longer piece on reading and learning diabilities.
www.nichcy.org/pubs/factshe/fs17txt.htm
NICHCY offers a 16-pager on reading and learning disabilities that talks in greater depth about LD in children, what to do if you're an adult who suspects you might have a learning disabilities, and how parents can help their child with LD at home and in school. Find lists of reading materials for families, for adults, and for educators, and connect with LD organizations, government agencies, and literacy groups.
- LD Online takes a deeper look.
www.ldonline.org/indepth
LD OnLine is the official Web site of the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. The link above leads you its "LD in Depth" page, where you can select the topic you want to go deeper into---adult issues, behavior, giftedness, the IEP, parenting...it's up to you. There's lots of detail here.
- Delve into the treasure chest at LDA.
www.ldaamerica.org/index.asp
LDA is the Learning Disabilities Association of America. From their home page (the link above), you can pick the type of information you need on LD. Are you a parent? teacher? A professional needing to understand the characteristics of LD and associated conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in order to provide effective services and assistance? An adult with LD? Pick your pleasure, and go straight to tailored info on LD.
- And find treasures at NCLD.
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For facts on specific learning disabilities (i.e., dyslexia, dysgraphia, etc), see the Language & Math section; for facts on Information Processing Disorders, Giftedness, Asperger's & Nonverbal LD, and AD/HD see Related Issues à
http://www.ncld.org/ld-basics
- LDA also offers quick overviews of dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia.
www.ldaamerica.org/index.asp
At the home page of LDA (Learning Disabilities Association of America), the first paragraph states "Typical learning difficulties include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia." Each "dys" is linked to a list of the signs and symptoms of that disorder and a quick list of strategies to use to offset its affects.
- And for the authoritative specialist on dyslexia...
www.interdys.org
The International Dyslexia Association's name speaks for itself.
National Organizations That Can Help
The organizations that offer the above publications are the same ones that offer a wide range of other information, assistance, and services. But, to make life a little easier, here's a quick, consolidated list in alphabetical order.
Find an LD Group in Your State
Several of the national groups listed above have chapters throughout the United States. You can often find out where your state chapter is located by visiting online. And, often, the state chapter can put you in touch with local chapters. We've provided the names and links below of organizations that offer this type of info, support, and connection.
LD Research
- Summarizing LD research.
Lyon, R. (1997). Report on learning disabilities research. Adapted from testimony given by Dr. Reid Lyon before the Committe on Education and the Workforce in the U.S. House of Representatives on July 10, 1997. Available online at:
http://www.ldonline.org/article/6339
At the time of this testimony, Dr. Lyon was the Acting Chief of the Child Development and Behavior Branch, at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH). His testimony begins with a summary of what we know about how children learn to read, including understanding how sounds are connected to print, how reading fluency develops, and how meaning is constructed from print, as well as other factors that influence learning to read. Next, an overview is provided on why so many children are having difficulty learning to read (deficits in phoneme awareness and developing the alphabetic principle, deficits in acquiring reading comprehension strategies and applying them to the reading of text, deficits in developing and maintaining the motivation to learn to read, limitations in effectively preparing teachers). The testimony also includes a summary of what we can do help children learn to read.
- What have we learned from the last two decades of LD research?
Two Decades of Research in Learning Disabilities: Reading Comprehension, Expressive Writing, Problem Solving, Self-Concept. Keys to Successful Learning: A National Summit on Research in Learning Disabilities. (1999). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 430 365)
This document presents four brief papers that review and synthesize the research on intervention with students who have learning disabilities (LD). The papers are:
- Instructionally, what works with students with LD? More from the National Summit on Research.
Improving Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: The Results of Three Research Syntheses. Keys to Successful Learning: A National Summit on Research in Learning Disabilities. (1999). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 430 367)
This booklet presents three brief papers that summarize three meta-analytic research syntheses of instruction for students with learning disabilities. The papers are:
- Findings from 13 studies about expressive writing: A meta-analysis.
Baker, S., & Gersten, R. (2001, January). Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Elementary School Journal, 101(3), 251-72. (An article by the same title, but a publication date of 1999, is available through the ERIC system, EDRS Reproduction Service No. ED 439 532, and online at: www.ericdigests.org/2000-4/writing.htm
The 2001 article: Presents analysis of 13 studies designed to teach students with learning disabilities to write better expository or narrative text. Notes the success of these interventions, and details three components for any comprehensive instructional program: instruction in writing process, critical dimensions of different writing genres, and structures for feedback. (ERIC: JPB)
The 1999 article: Summarizes research on effective instruction in writing for students with learning disabilities. It finds that three components stand out as methods that reliably and consistently lead to improved outcomes in teaching expressive writing to these students. These components are: (1) adhering to a basic framework of planning, writing, and revision; (2) explicitly teaching critical steps in the writing process; and (3) providing feedback guided by the information explicitly taught. The paper also notes two specific teaching methodologies that incorporate these three principles: first, Self-Regulated Strategy Development, which involves self-directed prompts, and second, Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing, which focuses on pre-writing strategies. Emerging issues in writing instruction are identified, including the mechanics versus the content of writing, dictation as a means of eliminating mechanical difficulties of expressive writing, and transfer of writing skills and related strategies to other subject-matter areas. (Contains 10 references.) (ERIC: DB)
- The Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) model, the Strategic Instruction Model (SIM), and high school students..
Bremer, C.D., Clapper, A.T., & Kachgal, M.M. (2000). Never too late: Approaches to reading instruction for secondary students with disabilities. Research to Practice Brief: Improving Secondary Education and Transition Services through Research. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 466 913) (Available online at: www.ncset.org/publications/viewdesc.asp?id=274)
This research brief discusses two reading instruction models for teaching secondary school students with disabilities. The first, Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR), is designed specifically for students with learning disabilities and students who are at risk of reading failure. This strategy adapts reciprocal reading and incorporates cooperative learning. CSR utilizes four strategies: preview, click and clunk (students identify parts of a passage that are hard to understand, then using four "fix-up" strategies, get the gist and wrap up. Students are also taught to use the following cooperative group roles: leader, clunk expert, gist expert, announcer, and encourager. The second strategy, Strategic Instruction Model (SIM), consists of a package of components for use by students with learning disabilities, as well as instructional tools for use by teachers. The reading strategies portion of SIM includes: paraphrasing, self-questioning, visual imagery, and word identification. The Content Enhancement Routines in SIM help teachers manage and present the content of their classes in ways that help all students learn. A concept anchoring table is presented. The article closes with a description of other approaches and suggestions for selecting and implementing the appropriate model. (Contains 19 references.) (ERIC: CR)
Editor's note: Find out in detail about the SIM, at: http://www.ku-crl.org/sim/index.html. You may also be interested in another Research to Practice Brief at NCSET, "Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR): Improving Secondary Students' Reading Comprehension Skills," by Christine D. Bremer, Sharon Vaughn, Ann T. Clapper, and Ae-Hwa Kim. Find it at: www.ncset.org/publications/viewdesc.asp?id=424.
What about School?
- Look up---at the section on LD research.
The section just above, on LD research, connects you with what research has to say about teaching students with LD. Take a look, if you haven't already---and put these research insights into practice when you're looking for interventions that work.
- What is dysgraphia? What to do when children have trouble with writing.
http://www.vtpic.com/downloads/fact_dysgraphia.pdf
This 2-pager, available online at PIC (the Vermont Parent Training and Information Center), concisely discusses what kinds of accommodations and adjustments at school help children with writing difficulties.
- More on dysgraphia.
www.ldonline.org/article/6202
Find out what dysgraphia is, and the accomodations and modifications in the classroom that can help students with this type of learning disability.
- Help students learn to strategically process what they read.
www.ericdigests.org/2001-4/reading.html
Williams, J.P. (2000). Strategic processing of text: Improving reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities (ERIC/OSEP Digest #599). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 449 596). This digest, based on a book of the same title, summarizes relevant research and promising practices in the strategic processing of text, both narrative and expository, by students with learning disabilities. The digest stresses the importance of training teachers in strategy instruction.
- Visit the Educator's Homepage at LD Online.
www.ldonline.org/educators
This page showcases ideas and strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities from outstanding and experienced teachers. Find out what to do if you suspect a student has a learning disability; how to handle assessment issues, inclusion, and parent conferences; and what teaching strategies and techniques work.
- Check out LDA's materials for teachers.
www.ldaamerica.org/aboutld/teachers/index.asp
- Schwab Learning has a boatload of info on managing LD in the school setting.
www.schwablearning.org/index.asp
Behavior, assistive technology, learning strategies, homework...roam around Schwab's site, use the "select a topic to search" drop-down menu at the top or enter a keyword and search, or click on the tabs "managing" or "connecting" to find the info on school you're looking for.
- Dyslexia info for teachers.
http://www.dyslexia-teacher.com
Everything but the kitchen sink to help teachers with students who have dyslexia.
- Current Practice Alerts.
www.teachingld.org/ld_resources/alerts/default.htm
Click the link above, and you'll access a library of previous alerts about research in learning disabilities. The Alerts series is a joint initiative sponsored by two divisions of the Council for Exceptional Children-the Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) and the Division for Research (DR). Alerts provide timely and informed judgments regarding professional practices in the field. Based on the adequacy of the current knowledge base and practice experience, each Alert makes a recommendation of "Go For It" (practices for which there is solid research evidence of effectiveness), or "Use Caution" (practices for which the research evidence is incomplete, mixed, or negative).
- Transition planning.
http://www.nichcy.org/resources/transition_disab.asp#LD
When students reach the age of 16 (or younger, if appropriate), they must start planning for their transition from secondary school to the adult world. The link above will take you into NICHCY's Transition Suite and drop you off at a list of transition resources designed expressly to help students with learning disabilities plan ahead to life after high school.
What about Home?
- Check out LDA's materials for parents.
www.ldaamerica.org/aboutld/parents/index.asp
- Parents, LD, and designing educational services for your child.
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- "I have homework..."
www.vtpic.com/downloads/fact_homework.pdf
Homework can be a constant source of trouble for parents and students alike. If you're finding it so, this 2-page brief was written for you! It's available online, courtesy of VPIC (the Vermont Parent Training and Information Center).
- Enhancing self-concept: What works.
Elbaum, B., & Vaughn, S. (2003, March/April). For which students with learning disabilities are self-concept interventions effective? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(2), 101-08. (Note: This article is drawn from the same work that resulted in an article noted in the Two Decades of Research document listed under "LD Research" above. An executive summary for that article can be found at: http://www.ncld.org/at-school/especially-for-teachers/effective-teaching-practices/can-school-based-interventions-enhance-the-self-concept-of-students-with-learning-disabilities-a-research-synthesis-executive-summary
This meta-analysis looked at outcomes of school-based interventions aimed at enhancing the self-concept of students with learning disabilities, specifically effect sizes in relation to students' self-concepts prior to the intervention. Results indicated that only students with documented low self-concept benefited significantly from intervention. For these students effect sizes were quite large. (Contains references.) (ERIC: Author/DB)
- SparkTop.org is not just for anybody.
www.sparktop.org/intro.html
SparkTop.org---where no two brains spark alike---is for 8-12 year-olds who learn differently. If that's you, you might wanna go there to learn about your LD, recognize strengths, showcase your creativity, and connect with other kids who have LD.
- And speaking of young people---don't forget to visit Zigawhat!
www.nichcy.org/kids/index.htm
No grown-ups allowed.
- For students themselves: Being your own advocate.
http://www.ncld.org/at-school/your-childs-rights/advocacy-self-advocacy/being-your-own-advocate NCLD (National Center for Learning Disabilities) pairs its two parent guides (noted above) with one called "Being Your Own Advocate." This introductory guide is designed to help teens and adults with learning disabilities become familiar with the rights and responsibilities they have in school, college and the workplace. Scroll down the page linked above until you see "LD Advocacy." You'll find the links to the guide there.
- Going on to postsecondary schooling, financial aid, and more.
http://www.heath.gwu.edu/factsheet.htm
Visit the HEATH Resource Center---it's not a college and it doesn't offer financial aid itself, but you can learn about both there. HEATH is the national center on postsecondary education for individuals with disabilities. At the link above, you'll find publications such as "Financial Aid for Individuals with Learning Disabilities" and "Selecting A College for Students with Learning Disabilities or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)."
Ongoing Sources of Research Info
Many, many journals serve as ongoing sources of information about LD research. We've listed some of these predominant journals below, in alphabetical order. We've also included several Web sites that can save you a lot of time searching for research, because they're tracking the research. As we've said before, though, research must be evaluated in terms of its credibility and its applicability to your particular circumstances. For more information on how to do this, consult NICHCY's A-Z resources page on understanding research and evaluating its credibility. At the moment, we offer these basic introductions:
Okay, now for the journals that can serve as a fountain of continuous info on LD research. Here goes!
- Current Practice Alerts.
www.teachingld.org/ld_resources/alerts/default.htm
Click the link above, and you'll access a library of previous alerts about research in learning disabilities. The Alerts series is a joint initiative sponsored by two divisions of the Council for Exceptional Children-the Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) and the Division for Research (DR). Alerts provide timely and informed judgments regarding professional practices in the field. Based on the adequacy of the current knowledge base and practice experience, each Alert makes a recommendation of "Go For It" (practices for which there is solid research evidence of effectiveness), or "Use Caution" (practices for which the research evidence is incomplete, mixed, or negative).
- Intervention in School and Clinic.
Includes hands-on tips, techniques, methods, and ideas from top authorities for improving the quality of assessment, instruction, and management. Published five times a year. A publication of Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Telephone: (800) 897-3202; (512) 451-3246. Web: www.proedinc.com/journals.html
- Journal of Learning Disabilities.
www.sagepub.com/journal.aspx?pid=251
The Journal of Learning Disabilities provides information about best practice and research in learning disabilities. Read more about it and subscribe via the link above.
- Another Journal of Learning Disabilities? Yes.
www.proedinc.com/jld.html
This Journal of Learning Disabilities provides in-depth coverage of specific topics or issues in the field of learning disabilities, extensive literature reviews, theoretical papers, and position papers, reports of empirical research intervention articles, and overviews of successful interventions that can be replicated with other individuals with learning disabilities. Read more about it and subscribe via the link above.
- Journal of Special Education.
The Journal of Special Education is a research journal in the field of special education for individuals with disabilities ranging from mild to severe. Quarterly. A publication of Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Telephone: (800) 897-3202; (512) 451-3246. Web: www.proedinc.com/journals.html
- Learning Disabilities - A Multidisciplinary Journal.
Publication of the Learning Disabilities Association of America, 4156 Library Road, Pittsburgh, PA 15234. Twice yearly. Ph. (412) 341-1515. Web: www.ldaamerica.org
- Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.
The Learning Disabilities Research & Practice journal presents current research in the field of learning disabilities and disseminates information important to practitioners in the field. Members of the Division for Learning Disabilities (a special interest division of the Council for Exceptional Children) receive the Journal series as part of their membership. To find out how to join DLD, visit: www.teachingld.org/become/default.htm
- Learning Disability Quarterly.
The Learning Disability Quarterly reports research on the many facets of learning disabilities. Published 4 times per year by the Council for Learning Disabilities. Membership in the Council for Learning Disabilities includes a complimentary subscription, but a subscription is also available without membership. To subscribe, visit: www.cldinternational.org/c/@nbz2w2jsbn8KE/Pages/ldqinfo.html
- Reading & Writing Quarterly - Overcoming Learning Difficulties.
This journal provides critical information to improve instruction for regular and special education students who have difficulty learning to read and write for university-based instructors and researchers, learning consultants, school psychologists, and teachers. Quarterly. Published by Taylor & Francis, Inc., 325 Chestnut Street, Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Web: www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/10573569.asp
- Remedial and Special Education.
This journal emphasizes interpretation of research and specific recommendations for practice. Bimonthly. A publication of Pro-Ed, 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard, Austin, TX 78757-6897. Telephone: (800) 897-3202; (512) 451-3246. Web: www.proedinc.com/journals.html
What's Next from NICHCY?
- You tell us, please! What LD topics should we add to this list of Connections? Drop us a line at: nichcy@aed.org
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Reprinted with the permission of the National Dissemination Center.
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