Learning Disabilities (continued)

• Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD)
  www.cldinternational.org
• Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD)
  www.dldcec.org
• International Dyslexia Association
  www.interdys.org
• LDOnline
  www.ldonline.org
• Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA)
  www.ldaamerica.org
• National Association of School Psychologists (NASP)
  www.nasponline.org
• National Center for Learning Disabilities
  www.ld.org
  www.getreadytoread.org
• Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic
  www.rfbd.org
• Schwab Learning
  www.schwablearning.org

Find an LD Group in Your State

Several of the national groups listed above have chapters throughout the United States. You can often find out where your state chapter is located by visiting online. And, often, the state chapter can put you in touch with local chapters. We've provided the names and links below of organizations that offer this type of info, support, and connection.

• Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD)
  Find your regional CLD chapter at:
  www.cldinternational.org/c/@rmLS9PNUGukig/Pages/chapters.html
• International Dyslexia Association
  www.interdys.org/jsp/branch/structure.jsp
• Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA)
  www.ldaamerica.org/state_chapters/index.asp
• National Center for Learning Disabilities www.ld.org/LDInfoZone/InfoZone_ResourceLocator.cfm
• Schwab Learning
  (Confession: Schwab doesn't really have state or local chapters, per se, but you can use their online resources page to make state and local connections of all kinds. For example:
  
  • Using a drop-down menu, you can select your state and be given the contact info for a wide variety of groups and agencies in that state addressing issues related to learning disabilities.
    www.schwablearning.org/resources.asp?g=4&s=5
  • If you're looking to discuss concerns and experiences of parenting a child with a learning or attention problem, try their Parent to Parent message board, at:
    www.schwablearning.org/resources.asp?g=3
  • Before you leap into a message board, though,you might wanna read this interesting article about Online Parent Groups, at:
    www.schwablearning.org/articles.asp?r=62&g=3

LD Research

• Summarizing LD research.
  Lyon, R. (1997). Report on learning disabilities research. Adapted from testimony given by Dr. Reid Lyon before the Committe on Education and the Workforce in the U.S. House of Representatives on July 10, 1997. Available online at:
  http://www.ldonline.org/article/6339
  

  At the time of this testimony, Dr. Lyon was the Acting Chief of the Child Development and Behavior Branch, at the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH). His testimony begins with a summary of what we know about how children learn to read, including understanding how sounds are connected to print, how reading fluency develops, and how meaning is constructed from print, as well as other factors that influence learning to read. Next, an overview is provided on why so many children are having difficulty learning to read (deficits in phoneme awareness and developing the alphabetic principle, deficits in acquiring reading comprehension strategies and applying them to the reading of text, deficits in developing and maintaining the motivation to learn to read, limitations in effectively preparing teachers). The testimony also includes a summary of what we can do help children learn to read.

• What have we learned from the last two decades of LD research?
  Two Decades of Research in Learning Disabilities: Reading Comprehension, Expressive Writing, Problem Solving, Self-Concept. Keys to Successful Learning: A National Summit on Research in Learning Disabilities. (1999). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 430 365)
  
  This document presents four brief papers that review and synthesize the research on intervention with students who have learning disabilities (LD). The papers are:
  
  • "Can School-Based Interventions Enhance the Self-Concept of Students with Learning Disabilities?" (Batya Elbaum and Sharon Vaughn). This review finds that school-based interventions of either the skill development or skill enhancement types can lead to beneficial changes in students' self-perceptions and that middle school students appeared most responsive to such interventions. Executive summary available at: www.ld.org/research/ncld_self_concept.cfm
  • "Reading Comprehension Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities" (Russell Gersten and Scott Baker). Findings indicated the effectiveness of reading comprehension interventions, instruction in self-monitoring techniques, and peer-assisted learning strategies. Continuing difficulties with teaching students to generalize new skills were also found. Executive summary available at:
    www.ld.org/research/ncld_reading_comp.cfm
  • "Teaching Expressive Writing to Students with Learning Disabilities" (Russell Gersten and Scott Baker). Found that instructional writing interventions lead to significant improvements in students' writing and that common features of successful instruction included explicit instruction in the phases of writing, teacher demonstration, and teacher and/or peer feedback. Executive summary available at:
    www.ld.org/research/ncld_writing.cfm
  • "Intervention Research for Adolescents with Learning Disabilities" (H. Lee Swanson). This paper reports on a meta-analysis of 58 interventions. It found that direct instruction and strategy instruction were the most effective techniques. (ERIC: DB) Executive summary available at:
    www.ld.org/research/ncld_high_order.cfm
• Instructionally, what works with students with LD? More from the National Summit on Research.
  Improving Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: The Results of Three Research Syntheses. Keys to Successful Learning: A National Summit on Research in Learning Disabilities. (1999). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 430 367)
  
  This booklet presents three brief papers that summarize three meta-analytic research syntheses of instruction for students with learning disabilities. The papers are:
  
  • "Intervention Research for Students with Learning Disabilities" (H. Lee Swanson). Findings that resulted from a review of 272 studies are grouped into those on most effective forms of instruction; subject areas most affected by different instructional strategies; and other factors that influence achievement. Executive summary available at: www.ld.org/research/osep_swanson.cfm
  • "The Effect of Instructional Grouping Format on the Reading Outcomes of Students with Disabilities" (Batya Elbaum, Sharon Vaughn, Marie Hughes, Sally Watson Moody, and Jeanne Shay Schumm). This analysis of 20 studies presents conclusions on results of students tutoring each other; effects of small group instruction; the outcomes of multiple grouping formats; and effects of length of time during which alternative formats are implementedExecutive summary available at:
    www.ld.org/research/osep_reading.cfm
  • "Effective Instruction for Learning Disabled or At-Risk English-Language Learners?" (Russell Gersten, Scott Baker, Susan Unok Marks, and Sylvia B. Smith). Recommendations address components of an effective English-language development program, the value of adapted forms of the instructional approaches identified in the effective teaching research with this population, and effective ways to merge content area instruction with English-language development instruction. (ERIC: DB) Executive summary available at:
    www.ld.org/research/osep_at_risk.cfm

• Findings from 13 studies about expressive writing: A meta-analysis.
  Baker, S., & Gersten, R. (2001, January). Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Elementary School Journal, 101(3), 251-72. (An article by the same title, but a publication date of 1999, is available through the ERIC system, EDRS Reproduction Service No. ED 439 532, and online at: www.ericdigests.org/2000-4/writing.htm
  

  The 2001 article: Presents analysis of 13 studies designed to teach students with learning disabilities to write better expository or narrative text. Notes the success of these interventions, and details three components for any comprehensive instructional program: instruction in writing process, critical dimensions of different writing genres, and structures for feedback. (ERIC: JPB)

  The 1999 article: Summarizes research on effective instruction in writing for students with learning disabilities. It finds that three components stand out as methods that reliably and consistently lead to improved outcomes in teaching expressive writing to these students. These components are: (1) adhering to a basic framework of planning, writing, and revision; (2) explicitly teaching critical steps in the writing process; and (3) providing feedback guided by the information explicitly taught. The paper also notes two specific teaching methodologies that incorporate these three principles: first, Self-Regulated Strategy Development, which involves self-directed prompts, and second, Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing, which focuses on pre-writing strategies. Emerging issues in writing instruction are identified, including the mechanics versus the content of writing, dictation as a means of eliminating mechanical difficulties of expressive writing, and transfer of writing skills and related strategies to other subject-matter areas. (Contains 10 references.) (ERIC: DB)

• The Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) model, the Strategic Instruction Model (SIM), and high school students..
  Bremer, C.D., Clapper, A.T., & Kachgal, M.M. (2000). Never too late: Approaches to reading instruction for secondary students with disabilities. Research to Practice Brief: Improving Secondary Education and Transition Services through Research. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 466 913) (Available online at: www.ncset.org/publications/viewdesc.asp?id=274)
  

  This research brief discusses two reading instruction models for teaching secondary school students with disabilities. The first, Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR), is designed specifically for students with learning disabilities and students who are at risk of reading failure. This strategy adapts reciprocal reading and incorporates cooperative learning. CSR utilizes four strategies: preview, click and clunk (students identify parts of a passage that are hard to understand, then using four "fix-up" strategies, get the gist and wrap up. Students are also taught to use the following cooperative group roles: leader, clunk expert, gist expert, announcer, and encourager. The second strategy, Strategic Instruction Model (SIM), consists of a package of components for use by students with learning disabilities, as well as instructional tools for use by teachers. The reading strategies portion of SIM includes: paraphrasing, self-questioning, visual imagery, and word identification. The Content Enhancement Routines in SIM help teachers manage and present the content of their classes in ways that help all students learn. A concept anchoring table is presented. The article closes with a description of other approaches and suggestions for selecting and implementing the appropriate model. (Contains 19 references.) (ERIC: CR)

  Editor's note: Find out in detail about the SIM, at: http://www.ku-crl.org/sim/index.html. You may also be interested in another Research to Practice Brief at NCSET, "Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR): Improving Secondary Students' Reading Comprehension Skills," by Christine D. Bremer, Sharon Vaughn, Ann T. Clapper, and Ae-Hwa Kim. Find it at: www.ncset.org/publications/viewdesc.asp?id=424.

What about School?

• Look up---at the section on LD research.
  The section just above, on LD research, connects you with what research has to say about teaching students with LD. Take a look, if you haven't already---and put these research insights into practice when you're looking for interventions that work.
• What is dysgraphia? What to do when children have trouble with writing.
  http://www.vtpic.com/downloads/fact_dysgraphia.pdf
  This 2-pager, available online at PIC (the Vermont Parent Training and Information Center), concisely discusses what kinds of accommodations and adjustments at school help children with writing difficulties.
• More on dysgraphia.
  www.ldonline.org/article/6202
  Find out what dysgraphia is, and the accomodations and modifications in the classroom that can help students with this type of learning disability.
• Help students learn to strategically process what they read.
  www.ericdigests.org/2001-4/reading.html
  Williams, J.P. (2000). Strategic processing of text: Improving reading comprehension of students with learning disabilities (ERIC/OSEP Digest #599). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 449 596). This digest, based on a book of the same title, summarizes relevant research and promising practices in the strategic processing of text, both narrative and expository, by students with learning disabilities. The digest stresses the importance of training teachers in strategy instruction.
• Visit the Educator's Homepage at LD Online.
  www.ldonline.org/educators
  This page showcases ideas and strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities from outstanding and experienced teachers. Find out what to do if you suspect a student has a learning disability; how to handle assessment issues, inclusion, and parent conferences; and what teaching strategies and techniques work.
• Check out LDA's materials for teachers.
  www.ldaamerica.org/aboutld/teachers/index.asp
• Schwab Learning has a boatload of info on managing LD in the school setting.
  www.schwablearning.org/index.asp
  Behavior, assistive technology, learning strategies, homework...roam around Schwab's site, use the "select a topic to search" drop-down menu at the top or enter a keyword and search, or click on the tabs "managing" or "connecting" to find the info on school you're looking for.
• Dyslexia info for teachers.
  http://www.dyslexia-teacher.com
  Everything but the kitchen sink to help teachers with students who have dyslexia.
• Current Practice Alerts.
  www.teachingld.org/ld_resources/alerts/default.htm
  Click the link above, and you'll access a library of previous alerts about research in learning disabilities. The Alerts series is a joint initiative sponsored by two divisions of the Council for Exceptional Children-the Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) and the Division for Research (DR). Alerts provide timely and informed judgments regarding professional practices in the field. Based on the adequacy of the current knowledge base and practice experience, each Alert makes a recommendation of "Go For It" (practices for which there is solid research evidence of effectiveness), or "Use Caution" (practices for which the research evidence is incomplete, mixed, or negative).
• Transition planning.
  http://www.nichcy.org/resources/transition_disab.asp#LD
  When students reach the age of 16 (or younger, if appropriate), they must start planning for their transition from secondary school to the adult world. The link above will take you into NICHCY's Transition Suite and drop you off at a list of transition resources designed expressly to help students with learning disabilities plan ahead to life after high school.

What about Home?

• Check out LDA's materials for parents.
  www.ldaamerica.org/aboutld/parents/index.asp
• Parents, LD, and designing educational services for your child.
  www.ld.org/LDInfoZone/InfoZone_FactSheetIndex.cfm
  NCLD (National Center for Learning Disabilities) offers two separate guides to help parents and guardians get help and services if they believe their preschool child or school-aged child has a learning disability. Scroll down the page linked above until you see "LD Advocacy." You'll find the links to the guides there.
• "I have homework..."
  www.vtpic.com/downloads/fact_homework.pdf
  Homework can be a constant source of trouble for parents and students alike. If you're finding it so, this 2-page brief was written for you! It's available online, courtesy of VPIC (the Vermont Parent Training and Information Center).
• Homework toolkits for parents.
  www.ldonline.org/article/5606
• More on homework--and four basic principles for enhancing study skills.
  www.ldonline.org/article/5904
• Assistive technology and learning disabilities.
  www.ldonline.org/indepth/technology
  Find out what assistive technology may help your child with learning disabilities.
• Enhancing self-concept: What works.
  Elbaum, B., & Vaughn, S. (2003, March/April). For which students with learning disabilities are self-concept interventions effective? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(2), 101-08. (Note: This article is drawn from the same work that resulted in an article noted in the Two Decades of Research document listed under "LD Research" above. An executive summary for that article can be found at: www.ld.org/research/ncld_self_concept.cfm)
  

  This meta-analysis looked at outcomes of school-based interventions aimed at enhancing the self-concept of students with learning disabilities, specifically effect sizes in relation to students' self-concepts prior to the intervention. Results indicated that only students with documented low self-concept benefited significantly from intervention. For these students effect sizes were quite large. (Contains references.) (ERIC: Author/DB)

• SparkTop.org is not just for anybody.
  www.sparktop.org/intro.html
  SparkTop.org---where no two brains spark alike---is for 8-12 year-olds who learn differently. If that's you, you might wanna go there to learn about your LD, recognize strengths, showcase your creativity, and connect with other kids who have LD.
• And speaking of young people---don't forget to visit Zigawhat!
  www.nichcy.org/kids/index.htm
  No grown-ups allowed.
• For students themselves: Being your own advocate.
  http://ncld.org/LDInfoZone/InfoZone_FactSheetIndex.cfm
  NCLD (National Center for Learning Disabilities) pairs its two parent guides (noted above) with one called "Being Your Own Advocate." This introductory guide is designed to help teens and adults with learning disabilities become familiar with the rights and responsibilities they have in school, college and the workplace. Scroll down the page linked above until you see "LD Advocacy." You'll find the links to the guide there.
• Going on to postsecondary schooling, financial aid, and more.
  http://www.heath.gwu.edu/factsheet.htm
  Visit the HEATH Resource Center---it's not a college and it doesn't offer financial aid itself, but you can learn about both there. HEATH is the national center on postsecondary education for individuals with disabilities. At the link above, you'll find publications such as "Financial Aid for Individuals with Learning Disabilities" and "Selecting A College for Students with Learning Disabilities or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)."

Ongoing Sources of Research Info

Many, many journals serve as ongoing sources of information about LD research. We've listed some of these predominant journals below, in alphabetical order. We've also included several Web sites that can save you a lot of time searching for research, because they're tracking the research. As we've said before, though, research must be evaluated in terms of its credibility and its applicability to your particular circumstances. For more information on how to do this, consult NICHCY's A-Z resources page on understanding research and evaluating its credibility. At the moment, we offer these basic introductions: