Underachievement Among Gifted Minority Students (continued)

Prom-Jackson, Johnson, and Wallace (1987) conducted a study of minority graduates of A Better Chance, Inc. (ABC), a nonprofit educational organization that identifies academically gifted low SES minority students as possible candidates for college preparatory secondary schools. It was concluded that low SES gifted minority students had parents of all educational levels. Parental educational level was not a good predictor of minority students' academic performance. The findings on parental beliefs and values suggested that in spite of social hardships and barriers, which often limit achievement and social advancement, this group of parents must have had high expectations of their children in order to have encouraged them to pursue high levels of education and challenging careers.

In a seminal study, Clark (1983) examined low SES Black students' achievement and underachievement in their family context. Achieving Black students had parents who:

    * Were assertive in their parent involvement efforts
    * Kept abreast of their children's school progress
    * Were optimistic and tended to perceive themselves as having effective coping mechanisms and strategies
    * Set high and realistic expectations for their children
    * Held positive achievement orientations and supported tenets of the achievement ideology
    * Set clear, explicit achievement-oriented norms
    * Established clear, specific role boundaries
    * Deliberately engaged in experiences and behaviors designed to promote achievement
    * Had positive parent-child relations characterized by nurturance, support, respect, trust, and open communication.

Conversely, underachieving Black students had parents who:

    * Were less optimistic and expressed feelings of helplessness and hopelessness
    * Were less assertive and involved in their children's education
    * Set unrealistic and unclear expectations for their children
    * Were less confident in terms of their parenting skills.

Ford (1993) also found that gifted Black achievers reported more positive values and expectations among their parents regarding their participation in the gifted program, doing well, and exerting effort.

School-Related Factors and UnderachievementNumerous factors in schools can influence the achievement of gifted minority students. For example, in a study of gifted Black achievers and underachievers (Ford, 1995), underachievers reported:

    * Less positive teacher-student relations
    * Having too little time to understand the material
    * Less supportive classroom climate
    * Being unmotivated and disinterested in school.

Underachievers also expressed more concerns regarding the lack of attention to multicultural education in their classes, which contributed to their lack of interest in school.

Numerous studies indicate that teacher expectations have a powerful impact on student achievement (e.g., Good, 1981). Using teachers to define underachievement presents some problems if teachers lack objectivity or training in gifted education and multicultural education. Teachers tend to have lower expectations for minority and low income students than for other students (Hale-Benson, 1986). Consequently, minority students may not be identified as either gifted or underachieving. Low teacher expectations for minority students may relate to a lack of teacher training in both multicultural and gifted education. Such unprepared teachers are less likely to refer minority students for gifted education services or to complete checklists favorably. When students do not have access to appropriate education, they have difficulty reaching their potential. The result may be underachievement due to disinterest, frustration, and lack of challenge.

Some researchers have noted how minority students' learning styles may contribute to underachievement. Specifically, research indicates that Black students tend to be field-dependent, visual, and concrete learners (Hale-Benson, 1986), whereas schools teach more often in verbal, abstract, and decontextualized ways. Thus, mismatch between learning styles and teaching styles can result in confusion, frustration, and underachievement for gifted minority students.

Excessive use of competition can also hinder students' achievement, damaging academic motivation and educational engagement. Given the more social and less competitive nature of minority students (e.g., Hale-Benson, 1986), competition can heighten students' anxieties, lower their achievement motivation, and lower their academic and social self-concepts.

Suggestions for Preventing and Reversing Underachievement

Student underachievement is a complex and persistent problem. Reversing underachievement among gifted minority students requires intensive efforts on the part of teachers and counselors, as well as a partnership with parents and students. For optimal effects, teachers and counselors must tailor interventions to students' needs. Interventions for gifted minority students must consider social-psychological, family, peer, and school factors. Interventions must:

    * Ensure that definitions of underachievement are both qualitative and quantitative, and that measures are valid and reliable
    * Enhance self-perceptions, self-esteem, self-concept (academic and social), and racial identity
    * Improve students' skills in studying, time management, organization, and taking tests
    * Involve family members as partners in the educational process
    * Address school-related factors, including providing teachers and counselors with gifted and multicultural training to meet both the academic and affective needs of gifted minority students. This training should include strategies for improving student-teacher relations, teacher expectations, and the classroom climate.