Generalization and the Effects of Consequences

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Generalization, or the transfer of learning, is the process by which a behavior reinforced in one situation will be exhibited in another situation. The generalization process is an important element of learning. If the process of generalization did not occur, each response would have to be learned in every specific situation . . . “transfer of behavior does not occur automatically, but needs to be planned and programmed as part of the training process” (Vaughn, Bos, & Lund, 1986, p. 176).

According to Landrum and Lloyd (1992), when modifying the behavior of children and youth who have emotional and behavioral disorders, practitioners should keep in mind that

interventions that produce lasting change that can be observed in other settings, at different times, with other trainers, and in the absence of the programmed stimuli under which the desired responses were initially emitted are preferable to interventions that do not provide such changes. (p. 594)

Ideally, the transfer of training will occur across four dimensions: time, setting, responses, and individuals (Wahler, Berland, & Coe, 1979). In a paper reviewing research findings on promising interventions for application with students with chronic behavior difficulties, Kupper (1999) suggested that behavior assessment strategies be linked with interventions that follow the student through different settings. In addition, multiple interventions may be needed. To increase generalization, Kupper suggests that interventions should:

• address related behaviors and contributing factors.
• include plans for maintenance over time and generalization.
• be proactive, corrective, and instructive.
• address the strengths and weaknesses of the individual student.
• be developmentally appropriate.
• involve parents and family.
• be implemented as early in the student’s life as possible.
• be positive rather than punitive.
• be fair, consistent, unbiased, and responsive to ethnic, cultural, and linguistic diversity.

Example

A young child learns the name of an animal (dog). He calls a specific dog “dog” and will soon generalize the name “dog” to all four-legged animals within the classification. He will at times label other four-legged animals, such as cats, cows, and crawling brothers and sisters, with the name “dog.”

A toddler is reinforced for calling her father “Daddy.” She will generalize and call all male figures “Daddy” at an early stage of her development. She may call the mailman, milkman, and others “Daddy.” This may result in considerable stress between husband and wife.

If we wish to function successfully in the environment, we must apply the concepts learned in one situation to many and varied situations. For example, as young children we learn honesty, respect for authority, and the basic principles of computation. It is hoped that each year we can generalize this learning to the completion of our income tax returns.

Baer (1981) and Stokes and Baer (1977) make several suggestions for teaching students to generalize. They suggest that natural contingencies facilitate the learning of generalization. Natural contingencies are those that commonly occur in the environment as a consequence of a behavior. In addition, training more exemplars may help students to generalize. Reinforcing generalization and self-reports of the target behavior assist in generalization. It is important to remember that just because a student behaves in a desired way in one situation does not mean that generalization of that behavior to other settings has occurred. At least initially, generalization should be programmed.