Influence of Grading Practices on Motivation to Learn (continued)

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Self-Worth Theory

Covington (1992, p. 74) based his thinking about motivation on the assumption that “the search for self-acceptance is the highest human priority, and that in schools self-acceptance comes to depend on one’s ability to achieve competitively.” He reviewed theories of motivation, including attribution theory and theories about achievement goal orientations, and looked for ways to light the way forward. He acknowledged that students were not on equal footing with regard to ability; some students are more able than others. He recommended that schools work to create a condition he named motivational equity:

Obviously, not everyone is equally bright, nor can all children compete on an equal footing intellectually. But at least schools can provide all students with a common heritage in the reasons they learn. Everyone can experience feelings of resolve and a commitment to think more, and to dare more; feelings of being caught up in the drama of problem solving, and of being poised to learn and ready to take the next step. Low ability is no barrier to this kind of excellence. (p. 21)

The second recommendation that Covington made was that educators work to foster goal-oriented cognitions. This means providing students practice in the strategies they need in order to learn how to learn and how to think, to set learning goals, and then decide how to achieve them. This involves helping students to see intelligence as a resource that they can useand even improveand not an innate, unchangeable limit.

How do we foster motivational equity and encourage students along the road to achieving learning goals they set for themselves? What role does grading play in those efforts? Covington proposed six instructional guidelines (pp. 160–170), broad generalizations for which he provided research evidence (see Figure ). Not surprisingly, grades and grading policies figure in most of them.

First, schools must provide inherently engaging assignments. Intrinsic motivation must have an opportunity to show itself, and everyone is motivated to do something. One strategy he suggests is providing assignments that have manageable challenges, arouse curiosity, and stimulate the imagination. This recommendation is supported by more recent work in educational psychology that highlights the role of student interest (Bergin, 1999; Brophy, 1999; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). It also harks back to Bruner’s (1966) noting curiosity as a primary driver of intrinsic motivation.

Second, teachers must provide sufficient rewards for students who engage in these tasks successfully. Rewards must not be scarce, and they must come in such a way that the act of learning itself becomes a reward. This means that rewards, including grades, should come as a result of learning, not just participation. It also means that grading should be, to as great an extent as possible, under the control of students. Giving students choice in assignments on which they will be graded or having students participate in their own grading (e.g., grading themselves or conferencing with a teacher) are examples of ways grading can become a tool in fostering motivational equity and student development as learners. Research evidence suggests that if you give students the criteria for good performance, students can use them both to accomplish their tasks and also to judge their accomplishments.

Third, Covington recommends working to enhance effort–outcome beliefs. In other words, teachers need to provide opportunities for students to exercise some personal control over their work and have that effort lead to expected and valued learning or achievement. There is some evidence that when students are given choices and have the opportunity to exercise control, they in fact do get better scores. Students who are already mired in a cycle of failure will need special assistance to do this. Teachers will have to help them set realistic goals, so that they can believe they will be able to repeat their successes on future assignments. The grades students get on their work will be their evidence.

Fourth, Covington recommends working to build the connection in students’ minds between effort and self-worth. If school tasks are competitiveas, for example, when a limited number of high grades are availablepride in success or shame in failure depend on students’ perceptions of their ability. Classroom learning assignments, rewards, and grades should shift so that they emphasize effort, so that pride in success becomes linked to pride at working hard, and so that success is available to anyone who expends effort. This will involve a shift in the types of tasks and the amount of choice involved, so that students who expend effort really will be successful. To be clear, Covington does not recommend giving high grades “just for trying,” but rather structuring assignments tailored to students’ abilities and interests so that students who do try actually will succeed.