Grammar Mechanics for Praxis I: Pre-Professional Skills Test Study Guide (page 2)

Knowing the mechanics of language means getting down to basics—the rules of punctuation and capitalization. Punctuation marks are standardized marks that clarify meaning for your reader, serving as traffic signs that direct the reader to pause, connect, stop, consider, and go. Although most likely you have studied and learned many of the basic rules of punctuation and capitalization, this section will cover some common problem areas that may appear on the PPST exam, including misuse of commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, and capitalization.

Commas

Commas create pauses, clarify meaning, and separate different parts of a sentence. The comma splice is a common misuse of the comma. For the PPST exam, remember the six basic rules for using commas outlined on the following page.

Use a comma:

1. To separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, such as and, but, nor, so, for, or or. Use a comma before the conjunction.
   My instinct was to solve the problem slowly and deliberately, but we only had a week before the deadline.
2. To set off nonessential clauses. A nonessential clause is one that can be removed from a sentence without changing its meaning.
   My friend Rebecca, who is active in the local labor union, is a fifth-grade teacher.
3. To set off words or phrases that interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence.
   The certification program, however, works well for me.
   Elena Alvarez, my adviser and mentor, was present at the meeting.
4. To set off an introductory element, such as a word or phrase that comes at the beginning of a sentence
   Thrilled by the results, Phin presented the study to his colleagues.
.
5. To set apart a series of words in a list. Usually, the last item in a list is preceded by a conjunction. Although a comma is not necessary before the conjunction, it is preferred that you use one.
   Micah, Jose, and Sam attended the conference.
   Micah, Jose and Sam attended the conference.
6. To separate elements of dates and addresses. Commas are used to separate dates that include the day, month, and year. Dates that include just the month and year do not need commas. When the name of a city and state are included in an address, set off both with commas.
   Margaret moved to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, for the job.
   Maco came to Greensboro on June 15, 2004, right after she graduated from the program.
   Maco came to Greensboro in June 2004 after she graduated from the program.

Apostrophes

Apostrophes are used to show possession, contractions, and so on. Consider these eight rules for using apostrophes:

1. Add 's to form the singular possessive, even when the noun ends in s:
   Mr. Summers's essay convinced me.
2. Add 's to plural words not ending in s to show possession.
   The children's ability to absorb foreign language is astounding.
   The workshops focus on working women's needs.
3. Add ' to plural words ending in s to show possession.
   The students' grades improved each semester.
4. Add 's to indefinite pronouns that show ownership.
   Everyone's ability level should be considered.
5. Never use apostrophes with possessive pronouns.
   This experiment must be yours.
6. Use 's to form the plurals of letters, figures, and numbers, as well as expressions of time or money.
   Mind your p's and q's.
   The project was the result of a year's worth of work.
7. Add 's to the last word of a compound noun, compound subject, or name of a business or institution to show possession.
   The president-elect's speech riveted the audience.
   Gabbie and Michael's wedding is in October.
   The National Science Teachers Association's meeting will take place next week.
8. Use apostrophes to show that letters or words are omitted in contractions.
   Abby doesn't (does not) work today.
   Who's (who is) on first?

Capitalization

Capitalization is necessary both for specific words and to start sentences and quotations. The following are six instances when capitalization is needed:

1. the first word of the sentence
2. proper nouns (names of specific people, places, and things)
3. the first word of a complete quotation, but not a partial quotation
4. the first, last, and any other important words of a title
5. languages
6. the pronoun I, and any contractions made with it

Sometimes knowing when to capitalize a word is tricky. Look for these trouble spots on the PPST Writing test:

• Compass directions, such as east or west, are not capitalized unless they refer to a specific geographical area.
  The American Civil War was fought between the North and the South.
• Family relationships are not capitalized when they are preceded by a pronoun.
  I met my mother for lunch.
  Uncle Russ agreed to baby-sit, so that I could meet Mother for lunch.
• Seasons and parts of the academic year are not capitalized.
  I'll register for the course this fall.
• Words modified by proper adjectives are not capitalized, unless they are part of a proper name.
  Jacob recommended the Italian restaurant in his neighborhood.

Practice answering this usage question.

16. When Thomas Jefferson sent explorers Lewis and Clark into the he patterned their mission on the scientific methods to observe, collect, document and classify.

The answer is b. As a proper noun, the Enlightenment is correctly capitalized; however, the apostrophe is misplaced. To show possession, add 's to a singular noun. The West is correctly capitalized because it refers to a geographical region of the United States.