Mental Retardation: Causes and Prevention

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Mental retardation is caused by many factors; many of these are known, but others remain unidentified (The Arc, 2005). The link between the identification of specific causes of mental retardation and the development and implementation of preventive measures is clear. When a cause is identified, ways to prevent the debilitating effects of cognitive disabilities have often followed soon after. But it takes action for solutions actually to prevent or reduce the impact of the condition.

Causes

According to The Arc, a parent organization advocating for individuals with mental retardation, several hundred causes of mental retardation have been discovered, but for about one-third of those affected the cause is unknown (The Arc, 2005). Of those known causes, three conditions—explained later in this section—are the most common reasons for mental retardation:

1. Down syndrome
2. Fragile X syndrome
3. Fetal alcohol syndrome

Many different systems for organizing the causes of mental retardation can be applied. Sometimes they are divided into four groups: socioeconomic and environmental factors, injuries, infections and toxins, and biological causes. AAMR divide them instead into three groups by time of onset—that is, by when the event or cause first occurred (AAMR, 2002):

1. Prenatal: causes that occur before birth
2. Perinatal: causes that occur during the birth process
3. Postnatal: causes that happen after birth or during childhood

Prenatal causes exert their effects before birth. Examples include genetic and heredity, toxins taken by the pregnant mother, disease, and neural tube defects. Genetics and heredity include conditions such as fragile X syndrome and Down syndrome, as well as phenylketonuria (PKU). Prenatal toxins include alcohol, tobacco, and drug exposure resulting from the behavior of the mother during pregnancy. Diseases and infection, such as HIV/AIDS, can devastate an unborn baby. Neural tube disorders, such as anencephaly (where most of the child's brain is missing at birth) and spina bifida (incomplete closure of the spinal column), are also prenatal causes of mental retardation.

Perinatal causes occur during the birthing process. They include birth injuries due to oxygen deprivation (anoxia or asphyxia), umbilical cord accidents, obstetrical trauma, and head trauma. They also include low birth weight.

Postnatal causes occur after birth. The environment is a major factor in many of these situations. Child abuse and neglect, environmental toxins, and accidents are examples of postnatal causes. An additional reason for being identified as having mental retardation is societal biases, particularly toward diverse students.

Now let's turn our attention to some major causes of mental retardation across the three periods of onset. In particular, let's think about some genetic causes, both prenatal and postnatal toxins, low birth weight, and child abuse. Finally, we will briefly return to the situation of Black youngsters and their risk for being identified as having mental retardation.

Genetic Causes

Today, more than 500 genetic causes associated with mental retardation, many of them rare biological conditions, have been identified (The Arc, 2001). For example, fragile X syndrome is an inherited disability caused by a mutation on the X chromosome, and it was identified in 1991. It is now recognized as the most commonly known inherited cause of mental retardation, affecting about 1 in 4,000 males and 1 in 8,000 females (Crawford, Acuna, & Sherman, 2001). A common associated condition is recurrent otitis media (middle ear infection) with resulting hearing and language problems. Cognitive disabilities can be severe. Many of these individuals are challenged by limited attention span, hyperactivity, stereotypic behaviors (such as hand flapping or hand biting), and an inability to relate to others in typical ways. It is believed that almost half of individuals with fragile X syndrome have coexisting autism (Abbeduto et al., 2004; Demark, Feldman, & Holden, 2003). Many of these individuals also have repetitive speech patterns (Belser & Sudhalter, 2001).

Another example of a genetic cause for mental retardation due to a chromosomal abnormality is Down syndrome (a chromosomal disorder wherein the individual has too few or too many chromosomes). The nucleus of each human cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes (a total of 46). In the most common type of Down syndrome, trisomy 21, the 21st set of chromosomes contains three chromosomes rather than the normal pair. Certain identifiable physical characteristics, such as an extra flap of skin over the innermost corner of the eye (an epicanthic fold), are usually present in cases of Down syndrome. The degree of mental retardation varies, depending in part on how soon the disability is identified, the adequacy of the supporting medical care, and the timing of the early intervention. ~e great majority of people with Down syndrome have a high incidence of medical problems (National Down Syndrome Society [NDSS], 2005). For example, about half have congenital heart problems, and these individuals have a 15 to 20 times greater risk of developing leukemia. Although people with Down syndrome have intellectual disabilities, they have fewer adaptive behavior challenges than many of their peers with mental retardation (Chapman & Hesketh, 2000). These individuals do, however, have a higher prevalence of obesity, despite typically consuming fewer calories (Roizen, 2001). Possibly their reduced food consumption explains why individuals with Down syndrome are less active and less likely to spend time outdoors than their brothers and sisters. Teachers should help increase these students' opportunities for recreation and social outlets by creating exciting reasons to exercise and play with friends.