What Do We Know About Reading and Students with E/BD? (page 3)

Relationship between Reading Problems and Externalizing Behavior Disorders

Externalizing behavior disorders are prevalent among children and youth with E/BD. Externalizing behaviors are a broad categorization of problem behaviors that are typically defined as including behaviors of an acting-out nature; lying, fighting, cheating, stealing, oppositional behavior, and rule breaking make up one cluster of behaviors often referred to as antisocial behavior or conduct disorder. Problems with attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity make up another cluster, usually referred to as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. These two clusters of behavior often overlap; that is, children and youth may both have attentional/hyperactivity problems and exhibit antisocial behavior. Each cluster will be discussed in the following summary of studies as it relates to research on reading problems.

Both antisocial behavior disorders and severe reading problems persist over time, and both lead to poor adjustment in adolescence and adulthood. The presence of reading difficulties among delinquent populations and others with antisocial or conduct problems has been well documented over the years (e.g., Berger, Yule, & Rutter, 1975; Frick et al., 1991; Hinshaw, 1992; Maguin, Loeber, & Le Mahieu, 1993; McGee, Williams, Share, Anderson, & Silva, 1986), leading researchers and developmental specialists to question whether a causal relationship exists. McMichael (1979) posed this question in the title to her article, "The Hen or the Egg? Which Comes First—Antisocial Emotional Disorders or Reading Disability?"

Researchers in various countries have studied the relationship between externalizing behaviors and severe reading difficulties for 30 years. They conducted a series of epidemiological, longitudinal studies in England (Berger et al., 1975; Rutter & Yule, 1970), New Zealand (McGee et al., 1986), Canada (Stott, 1981), Scotland (McMichael, 1979), and Australia (Jorm, Share, Matthews, & MacLean, 1986). By assessing large numbers of children on behavioral and academic measures early in their school careers, in some cases before any formal instruction took place, and then again years later, researchers were able to ascertain relationships between severe behavior problems and reading problems. More specifically, researchers were able to ascertain whether one preceded the other.

Several findings emerged from these studies that shed some light on the question of "which came first?" and other related issues. First, the New Zealand researchers found that it is helpful to break down externalizing disorders into the two subcategories of attention problems/hyperactivity and antisocial/conduct disorder. The cluster of attention/hyperactivity problems was found to be more closely associated than conduct disorder with reading problems, an association also found by Frick et al. (1991) in a study conducted with boys ages 7 to 12 in the United States. However, in a comprehensive review of literature addressing the relationship between externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement, Hinshaw (1992) argues that the relationship among the variables may be age related. He makes the case that in younger children, inattention and hyperactivity are stronger correlates of academic underachievement than is aggression, and in older children antisocial behavior and delinquency are more clearly associated with underachievement.

The most salient and important finding from the studies is that externalizing problems, especially inattention and hyperactivity, either predate or coexist with reading problems; there is no evidence to suggest causation in either direction. McMichael (1979) summarizes thus:

The children who manifested antisocial behavior and reading difficulties at the age of six to seven appeared to have entered school with a constellation of earlier problems connected with delayed linguistic, perceptual, and cognitive development, low self-esteem, and antisocial behavior. The antisocial behavior had not arisen from loss of self-esteem through reading failure so much as accompanied low self-esteem into school.

Hinshaw (1992), in his literature review, confirms that causal relationships have not been established in either direction. He proposes that variables such as the following may be underlying factors contributing to the complex relationship between behavior problems and underachievement in reading:

Socioeconomic status: Socioeconomic status alone does not explain the overlap between externalizing disorders and underachievement; family interaction variables such as parental attitudes toward literacy or listening to the child's reading appear to mediate the relationship between SES and reading attainment.

Familial variables: Research in this area has been hampered by the dearth of studies and by the methodological issue of ascertaining whether family variables are antecedents or consequences of child problems. However, one well-crafted longitudinal study revealed that (a) early adverse family climate did predict specific reading deficits at age 8 even when language deficits and behavior problems were controlled, and (b) maternal depression/anxiety during the child's formative years was also highly predictive of later reading difficulties (Richman, Stevenson, & Graham, 1982).

Subaverage intelligence: Lower intelligence may be a predisposing factor toward both reading difficulties and aggressive or antisocial behavior. However, it is a complex and multifaceted construct and is not the clear causal agent for both.

Language deficits: Recent conceptions of reading failure recognize the role of language deficits, specifically phonologic and linguistic processing difficulties. Additionally, mild to moderate language problems are associated with a number of behavior problems, especially attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Research to date indicates that early language problems may in fact mediate problems in reading and problems in behavior; however, additional longitudinal research is needed to specify the nature of the association.

Neurodevelopmental delays: Although a few researchers have proposed that neurodevelopmental delays (manifested in delayed maturation of basic perceptual and motor functions) are a causal factor in language deficits, the topic remains controversial. Hinshaw (1992) suggests that neurodevelopmental delay "is a fuzzy construct, badly in need of sharpening", and its role in the association between behavior problems and achievement problems needs further examination.

In summary, many of the studies reviewed by Hinshaw serve to confirm the complex relationships among these variables in the development of both behavioral difficulties and achievement difficulties. According to Hinshaw (1992), attempting to untangle these associations and isolate single factors "is likely to be quite difficult or even misguided".

Based on this research, it may be concluded that although externalizing behavior disorders and reading problems do coexist and have been the subject of much study, there is no evidence for causation in either direction. However, because of the strong and persistent relationship, and given the negative prognosis for each, educators should continue to search for ways to ameliorate both types of problems. One implication of the research is that educators should perhaps intensify efforts to identify attention/hyperactivity problems as early as possible in order to prevent development of both reading problems and related behavior problems in later years.

Conclusion

Overall, three findings from the literature on students with E/BD and reading seem clear:

• Students with E/BD have an established pattern of underachievement in reading.
• Students who demonstrate comorbidity between E/BD and either LD or attention deficit disorder are particularly at risk for reading problems.
• While strong linkages exist between reading difficulties and externalizing behavior, a causal link is not evident.